OF  THE 

CALENMH  HEFDRM  COMMITTEE 


GOVERNMENT  OF  INDIA 


Council  of  Scientific  and  Industrial  Research, 
Old -Mill  Road, 

Near  D3& 

. <U .  ‘ 

IflSSk 


Published  bj 

The  Council  of  Scientific  and  Industrial  Research, 

Old  Mill  Road, 

New  Delhi. 


Printed  by  '  ■ : 

Sri  HariNarayan  Dey, 
Sree  Copal  Printing  Works, 
25/1A,  Kalidas  Singhee  Lane, 
Calcutta— 9. 


M  E  S  S  A  G  .E, 


I  am  glad  that  the  Calendar  Reform  Committee 
has  started  its  labours.  The  Government  of  India 
has  entrusted  to  it  the  work  of  examining  jthe 
different  calendars  followed; in  this  country  and  to 
submit  proposals  to  the  Gove’mment  for  an  accurate 
and  uniform  calendar  baaefl  on.  a  scientific  study 
for  the  whole  of  India.  I  airreold  that  we  have  at 
present  thirty  different  calendars,  differing  from 
each  other  in  various  ways,  including  the  methods 
of  time  reckoning.  These  calendars  are  the  natural 
result  of  our  past  political  and  cultural  history 
and  partly  represent  past  political  divisions  in 
the  country.  Now  that  we  have  attained  independence, 
it  is  obviously  desirable  that  there  should  be  a 
certain  uniformity  in  the  calendar  for  our  civic, 
social  and  other  purposes  and  that  this  should  be 
based  on  a  scientific  approach  to  this  problem. 

It  is  true  that  for  governmental  and  many 
other  public  purposes  we  follow  the  Gregorian 
calendar,  which  is  used  in  the  greater  part  of  the 
•world.  The  mere  fact  that  it  is  largely  used,  makes  » 
it  important.  It  has  many  virtues,  but  even  this 
has  certain  defects  which  make  it  unsatisfactory 
for  -universal  use. 

It  is  always  difficult  to  change  a  calendar 
to  which  people  are  used,  because  it  affects  social 
practices.  But  the  attempt  has  to  be  made  even  though 
it  may  not  be  as  complete  as  desired.  In  any  event, 
the  present  confusion  in  our  own  calendars  in  India 
ought  to  be  removed. 


I  hope  that  our  Scientists  will  give  a  lead 
in  this  matter. 


New  Delhi. 

February  18,  1953. 


MEMBERS  OF  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 

CHAIRMAN 

Prof.  M.  N.-Saha,  D.  Sc.,  F.  R.  S.,  M.  P., 

Director,  Institute  of  Nuclear  Physics, 

92,  Upper  Circular  Road,  Calcutta-9. 


members 

Prof.  A.  C.  Banerji,  M.  A.,  M.  Sc.,  F.  N.  I., 

Vice-Chancellor,  Allahabad  University, 
Allahabad. 


Dr.  K.  L.  Daftari,  B.  A.,  B.  L.,  D.  Litt., 
Mahal,  Nagpur. 

Shri  J.  S.  Karandikar,  B.  A.,  LL.  B., 

Ex -Editor,  The  Kesari, 

568  Narayan  Peth, 

Poona-2. 


Dr.  .  Gorakh  Prasad,  D.  Sc., 

Reader  in  Mathematics,  Allahabad  University, 
Beli  Avenue,  Allahabad. 


Prof.  R.  V.  Vaidya,  M.  A.,  B.  T., 

Senior  Lecturer  in  Mathematics,  Madhav  College,  Ujjain, 
78,  Ganesh  Bhuvan,  Freegunj,  Ujjain. 


Shri  N.  C.  Lahiri,  M.  A., 

55A,  Raja  Dinendra  Street,  Calcutta-6. 


Shri  N.  C.  Lahiri  acted  as  the  Secretary  of  the  Committee. 


TRANSLITERATION 


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as  well  as  in  well-known  geographical  names. 


PREFACE 


The  Calendar  Reform  Committee  was  appointed 
in  November,  1952,  by  the  Council  of  Scientific  and 
Industrial  Research  (of  the  Government  of  Ind^a)  with 
the  following  terms  of  reference  : 

“To  examine  all  the  existing  calendars  which  are  being 
followed  in  the  country  at  present  and  after  a  scientific 
study  of  the  subject,  submit  proposals  for  an  accurate  and 
uniform  calendar  for  the  whole  of  India  . 

In  accordance  with  its  terms'  of  reference,  the 
Committee  (for  personnel,  see  p.  4)  has  scientifically 
examined  all  the  calendars  prevalent  in  India  (vide 
Part  C,  Chap.  V),  vix ., — 

Gregorian  Calendar... which  is  used  for  civil  and 
administrative  purposes  (vide 
p.  170)  all  over  the  world. 

Islamic  Calendar . used  for  fixing  up  the  dates 

of  Islamic  festivals  (vide 
P,  179). 

Indian  Calendars 

or  Pancangas . used  for  fixing  up  dates  and 

moments  of  Hindu,  Bauddha 
and  Jaina  festivals  in  different 
States  of  India,  and  in  many 
cases  for  civil  purposes  also. 
They  are  about  30  in  number. 
(vide  Chap.  V,  p.  258). 

It  has  been  pointed  out  (p.  171)  that  the  Gregorian 
calendar,  which  is  used  all  over  the  world  for  civil 
and  administrative  purposes,  is  a  very  unscientific  and 
inconvenient  one.  The  World  Calendar  (p.^173), 
proposed  by  the  World  Calendar  Association  of  New 
York,  has  been  examined  and  found  suitable  for 
modern  life.  The  proposal  for  its  adoption  by  all  the 
countries  of  the  world  for  civil  and  administrative 
purposes  was  sponsored  by  the  Indian  Government 
before  the  U.  N.  O.  and  debated  before  the  ECOSOC 
(Economic  and  Social  Council)  at  Geneva  in  June, 
1954  (p.  173)  and  its  recommendations  have  been 
transmitted  to  the  Governments  of  the  World  for 
their  opinion,  "it  is  hoped  that  the  World  Calendar 
will  be  ^tinrately  adopted.  It  will  lead  to  a  great 
simplification  of  modem  life. 

The  introduction  oHbe  World  Calendar  in  place 
-tf  the  Gregorian  is  a  matter  for  the  whole  world, 
has  now  to  look  for  decision  by  the  U.  N.  O. 

Th# Islamic  (Hejira)  calendar  has  been  discussed 
on  p.  179,  along  with  some  proposals  for  reform 


suggested  by  Dr.  Hashim  Amir  Ali  of  the  Osmania 
University,  and  Janab  Mohammed  Ajmal  Khan  of  the 
Ministry  of  Education.  It  is  for  the  Islamic  world  to 
give  its  verdict  on  these  suggestions.  If  these  sugges¬ 
tions  are  accepted,  the  Islamic  calendar  would  fall  in 
line  with  other  luni-solar  calendars. 

As  these  two  important  systems  of  calendars  had 
to  be  left  out,  the  Committee's  labours  were  confined 
to  an  examination  of  the  different  systems  of  calendars 
used  by  Hindus,  Bauddhas  and  Jainas  in  the  different 
states  of  India,  chiefly  for  the  fixing  up  of  the  dates 
and  moments  of  their  religious  festivals,  and  for 
certain  civil  purposes  as  well. 

For  the  purpose  of  examining  all  the  existing 
calendars  of  India,  as  per  terms  of  reference,  an  appeal 
was  issued  to  the  PancShga  (Almanac)  makers  for 
furnishing  the  Committee  with  three  copies  of  their 
Pancangas.  In  reply  to  our  request  60  Pancangas 
(Almanacs)  were  received  from  different  parts  of  the 
country  and  were  examined  (p.  21).  To  facilitate 
examination  of  the  calendars,  a  questionnaire  was 
issued  to  which  51  replies  were  received  (pp.  23-31), 
In  addition  to  the  above,  48  persons  offered  their 
suggestions  (pp.  32-38)  for  reform  of  the  Indian 
calendar.  These  views  were  very  divergent  in 
character.  Some  quoted  ancient  scriptures  to  prove 
that  the  earth  is  flat,  with  a  golden  mountain  in  the 
centre  round  which  move  the  sun  and  the  planets* 
others  tried  to  refute  the  precession  of  equinoxes. 
All  opinions  were  taken  into  consideration  in  arriving 

at  the  decisions  of  the  Committee. 

•v;-  <- 

Principles  followed  in  fixing  up  the  Calendar  .—-The 
calendar  has  got  two  distinct  uses — civil  and  religious. 
The  Indian  calendars  are  used  not  only  for  fixing  up^ 
the  dates  and  moments  of  religious  observances  but 
also  for  the  purpose  of  dating  of  documents  and  for 
certain  ciyil  purposes  not  only  by  the  rural,  but  also 
by  a  large  section  of  the  urban  population.  There  is 
great  divergence  in  practice  in  different  parts  of  the 
country  in  this  respect.  Therefore  a  unified  solar 
calendar  has  been  proposed  for  all-India  use  for  civil 
purposes.  This  has  been  based  on  the  correct  length 
of  the  year  (vix.  the  tropical  year)  and  the  popular 
month-names,  vix.,  Caitra,  VaisSkha,  etc.  have  been, 
retained  (see  p.  6). 

Calendars  are  based  partly  on  SCIENCE  which 
nobody  is  permitted  to  violate  and  partly  on 
CONVENTIONS  which  are  man-made  and  vary  from 


vm 


PEERAGE 


placfe  to  place.  The  Indian  calendars  put  up  by 
almanac-makers  commit  the  violation  of  the  following 
principles  of  science  : — 

They  take  the  length  of  the  year  to  be  365.258756 
days  (p.  240,  Part  C  of  Report)  as  given  by  the  Suryo 
Siddhanta  about  500  A.  D.  ;  while  the  correct  length 
of  the  tropical  year,  which  alone  can  be  used  according 
to  the  Surya- Siddhanta  and  modern  astronomy  for 
calendarical  use,  is  365.242196  days.  The  difference 
of  .01656  days  is  partly  due  to  errors  of  observation, 
not  infrequent  in  those  days,  and  to  their  failure  to 
recognize  the  precession  of  equinoxes.  As  the  Surya- 
Siddhanta  value  of  the  year-length  is  still  used  in 
almanac-making,  the  year-beginning'  is  advancing  by 
.01656  days  per  year,  so  that  in  the  course  of  nearly 
1400  years,  the  year-beginning  has  advanced  by  23.2 
days,  with  the  result  that  the  Indian  solar  year, 
instead  of  starting  on  the  day  following  the  vernal 
equinox,  i.e.,  on  March  22,  as  prescribed  in  the  SOrya- 
Siddhanta  (see.  Chap.  V,  p.  239),  starts  on  April  13  or 
14.  The  situation  is  the  same  as  happened  in  Europe 
due  to  the  acceptance  of  365.25  days  as  the  length  of 
the  year  at  the  time,  of  Julius  Caesar  ;  the  Christmas 
Originally  linked  to  the  -winter  solstice  preceded  it 
by  10  days  by  1582  A.D.,  when  the  error  was 
rectified  by  the  promulgation  of  a  bull  by  Pope 
Gregory  XIII.  By  this,  Friday,  October  5  was 
proclaimed  as  Friday,  October  15,  and  new  leap-year 
rules  were  introduced. 

Unlike  Europe,  where  the  Pope  in  the  medieval 
times  possessed  an  authority  which  every  one  in 
Catholic  Europe  respected,  India  had  a  multiplicity 
of  eras  and  year-beginnings  due  to  her  history  during 
the  years  500-1200  A.  D.  But  for  calendaric  calcula¬ 
tions,  our  astronomers  all  over  India  have  been  using 
only  the  Saka  era  since  Aryabhata  (500  A.D.)  certainly 
and  probably  from  much  earlier  times,  and  in  local 
almanacs  other  eras  are  simply  imposed  on  it.  The 
Calendar  Committee  has  therefore  recommended  : — 

That  for  all  official  purposes,  the  Central  as  well 
as  State  Governments  should  use  the  Saka  era  along 
with  the  civil  calendar  proposed  by  the  Committee 
-(p.6).  It  is  suggested  that  the  change-over  may  take 
place  from  the  Saka  year  1878,  Caitra  1  (1956,  March 
21).  If  this  is  accepted,  the  last  month  of  the  year,  vix., 
1877  Saka,  the  solar  Phalguna,  which  has  a  normal 
length  of.  30  days,  will  have  an  extra  number  of  6  or 
7  days. 

/ 

The  pre-eminence  dT  the  Saka  era  is  due,  as 
historical  evidences  cited  on  pp.  228-238  and  255-257 
show,  that  it  was  the  earliest  era  introduced  in  India, 
by  Saka  ruling  powers,  and  have  been  used  exclusively 
by  the  Sakadylpi  Brahmins  (forming  the  astrologer 
caste)  for  calendar-making  on  the  basis  of  Siddhantic 


(scientific)  astronomy  evolved  by  Indian  astronomers 
on  the  basis  of  old  Indian  calendaric  conceptions, 
which  were  put  on  scientific  basis  by  blending  with 
them  astronomical  conceptions  prevalent  in  the  West, 
from  the  third  century  B.C. 

The  era  is  also  used  exclusively  for  horoscope 
making,  a  practice  introduced  into  India  since  the 
first  century  A.D.  by  the  Sakadvlpi  Brahmaqas. 

The  Calendar  Committee  has  devised  a  solar 
calendar  with  fixed  lengths  of  months  for  all-India  use, 
in  which  it  has  been  proposed  to  give  up  the 
calculations  of  the  Sdrya-Siddhsnta  in  which  the 
solar  months  vary  from  29  to  32  days. 

Religious  Calendar — The  Committee’s  task  resolved 
itself  into  a  critical  examination  of  the  different 
Indian  local  calendars,  about  30  in  number,  which 
use  different  methods  of  calculation.  This  produces 
great  confusion. 

As  already  stated  the  SGrya-Siddhanta  year  being 
longer  than  the  tropical  year  by  about  24  mins.,  the 
Hindu  calendar  months  have  gone  out  of  the  seasons 
to  which  they  conformed  when  the  Siddhantic  rules 
were  framed  ;  as  a  result,  the  religious  festivals  are. 
being  observed  not  in  the  seasons  for  which  they  were 
intended  but  in  wrong  seasons.  The  Committee  felt 
that  the  error  should  be  corrected  once  for  all  and 
the  months  brought  back  to  their  original  seasons. 
But  with  a  view  to  avoiding  any  violent  break  in  the 
present  day  practices,  the  desired  shifting  has  not 
been  effected,  but  any  further  increase  of  the  error  has 
been  stopped  by  adopting  the  tropical  year  for  our 
religious  calendar  also  (see  p.  7). 

Before  the  rise  of  Siddhanta  Jyotiga  (  400  A.D. ), 
India  used  only  the  lunar  calendar  calculated  according 
to  the  Vedahga  Jyoti§a  rules  and  most  religious  festi¬ 
vals  (  e.g.  the  Janma§taml,  the  birthday  of  Sri  Kr$qa) 
used  to  be  fixed  up  by  the  lunar  calendar  which  used 
only  tithi  and  nak$atra.  The  Calendar  Committee 
could  not  find  out  any  way  of  breaking  off  with  the 
lunar  affiliation  short  of  a  religious  revolution  and 
has,  therefore,  decided  to  keep  them.  For  this 
purpose,  the  lunar  year  is  to  be  pegged  on  to  the  solar 
year  by  a  number  of  conventions.  The  Committee  has 
adhered  to  the  ancient  conventions  as  far  as  possible. 
But  the  erroneous  calculations  of  tithis  and  nak?atras 
have  been  replaced  by  modern  calculations  given  in 
the  nautical  almanacs  and  modern  ephemerides,  and 
the  religious  holidays  have  been  fixed  for  a  central 
station  of  India  (  vide  page  40  ). 

The  present  practice  is  to  calculate  the  tithi  for 
each  locality  and  the  result  is  that  the  same  tithi 
may  not  occur  on  the  same  day  at  all  places.  The 
Calendar  Committee  has  found  that  the  continuance 


PBEE&DE 


IX 


of  different  lunar  calendars  for  different  places.  is  a 
relic  of  medieval  practice  when  communication  was 
difficult,  the  printing  press  did  not  exist  and 
astrologers  of  'each  locality  used  to  calculate  the 
calendar  for  that  locality  based  on  Siddhantic  rules 
and  used  to  proclaim  it  on  the  first  day  of  the  year 
to  their  clients.  In  these  days  of  improved  communi¬ 
cation,  free  press,  and  radio,  there  is  not  the  slightest 
justification  for  continuance  of  this  practice  and  the 
Committee  has  fixed  up  the  holidays  for  the  central 
station  (  82°  30'  E,  23°  11'  N,  see  Report  p.  40 ); 
and  recommended  that  these  holidays  may  be  used  for 
the  whole  of  India.  The  dates  of  festivals  of  the 
Hindus,  Jainas  and  Bauddhashave  been  determined  on 
the  above  basis.  This  will  put  an  end  to  the  calendar 
confusion. 

The  confusion  is  symbolic  of  India’s  history. 
While  all  Christendom  comprising  people  of  Europe, 
Asia  and  America,  follows  the  Gregorian  calendar, 
and  the  whole  of  the  Islamic  world  follows  the  Hejira 
calendar  for  civil  and  religious  purposes,  India  uses  30 
different  systems  for  fixing  up  the  same  holidays  in 
different  parts  of  .the  country  and  frequently,  two 
'rival  schools  of  pancSnga-makers  in  the  same  city  fix 
up  different  dates  for  the  same  festival.  This  is  a 
state  of  affairs  which  Independent  India  cannot 
tolerate.  A  revised  national  calendar,  as  proposed 
by  us,  should  usher  a  new  element  of  unity  in 
India. 

The  Committee  has  therefore  gone  deeply  into  the 
history  of  calendar  making  in  all  countries  from  the 
earliest  times  particularly  into  the  history  of  calendar¬ 
making  in  India  ( vide  Chap.  V)  and  has  arrived  at  their 
conclusions.  Its  recommendations  are  entirely  in 
agreement  with  the  precepts  laid  down  by  the  Siddhan¬ 
tic  astronomers,  as  given  in  the  SOrya-Siddhsnta  and 
other  standard  treatises  (see  p.  238  et  seq.). 

The  Committee  has  also  compiled  a  list  of  all  reli¬ 
gious  festivals  observed  in  diffirent  parts  of  India  and 
listed  them  under  the  headings  (i)  Lunar,  and  (ii)  Solar, 
with  their  criteria  for  fixing  the  dates  of  their  obser¬ 
vances  (pp.  102-106). 

Where  does  the  Government  come  in  :  Though  India 
is  a  secular  state,  the  Central  Government  and  the 
State  Governments  have  to  declare  a  number  of  holi¬ 
days  in  advance,  a  list  of  which  will  be  found  on  pages 
117-154  for  the  Central  Government  as  well  as  for  the 
States.  These  holiday#*  are  of  four  different  kinds, 
viz.  : — 

(i)  Holidays  given  according  to  the  Gregorian 
calendar,  e.g„  Mahatma  Gandhi’s  birthday, 
which  falls  on  Oct.  2.  These  present  no 
problem  to  any  government. 


(ii)  Btlt  there-  are  other  holidays,  which  are  given 
according  to  the  position  of  the  Sun  (vide 
pp.  117-118). 

(iii)  Others  which  are  given  according  to  the  luni- 
solar  calendar  (pp,  119-124). 

(iv)  Holidays  for  Moslems  and  Christians  (pp.  125 
and  126). 

It  is  a  task  for  the  Central  as  well  as  State  Govern¬ 
ments  to  calculate  in  advance  dates  for  the  holidays  it 
gives.  This  is  done  on  the  advice  of  Pancahga-makers 
attached  to  each  Government.  In  addition,  numerous 
indigenous  pancSngas  are  prepared  on  the  Siddhantic 
system  of  calculations,  the  elements  of  which  are  now 
found  to  be  completely  erroneous.  There  is  a  wide 
movement  in  the  country  first  sponsored  by  the 
great  savant,  patriot  and .  political  leader,  the  late 
Lokamanya  B.  G.  Tilak,  for  making  the  pancanga 
calculations  on  the  basis  of  the  correct  and  up-to 
date  astronomical  elements.  As  a  result,  there  are 
almost  in  every  State  different  schools  of  pancSnga 
calculations,  differing  in  the  durations  of  tithis, 
nak?atras,  etc.,  and  consequently  in  the  dates  of 
religious  festivals.  The  problem  before  the  Govern¬ 
ment  is  :  which  one  of  the  divergent  systems  is  to  be 
adopted.  The  Committee  has  suggested  a  system  of 
calculations  for  the  religious  calendar  also,  based  on 
most  up-to-date  elements  of  the  motion  of  the  sun  and 
the  moon.  Calendars  for  five  years  from  1954-55  to 
1958-59  have  been  prepared  on  this  basis  showing 
therein  inter  alia  the  dates  of  important  festivals  of 
different  States  ( vide  pp.  41-100).  The  lists  of  holidays 
for  the  Government  of  India  and  of  each  separate 
State  for  the  five  years  have  also  been  prepared  from 
this  calendar  for  the  use  of  the  Governments.  The 
Committee  hopes  that  the  Government  of  India  as  well 
as  the  State  Governments  would  adopt  these  lists  in 
declaring  their  holidays  in  future.  The  Ephemerides 
Committee  which  has  been  formed  by  the  Government 
of  India,  consisting  of  astro’nomers  versed  in  the 
principles  of  calendar-making  would  act  as  advisers  to 
the  Central  as  well  as  State  Governments. .  It  may  be 
assisted  by  an  advisory  committee  to  help  it  in  its 
deliberations. 

The  responsibility  of  preparation  of  the  five-yearly 
calendar  and  the  list  of  holidays  on  the  basis  of 
recommendations  adopted  by  the  Committee  has  been 
shared  by  Sri  N.  C.  Lahiri  and  Sri  R.  V.  Vaidya, 
aided  by  some  assistants  and  several  pandits  of  note, 
amongst  whom  the  following  may  be  mentioned  : 
Sri  A.  K.  Lahiri,  Sri  N.  R.  Choudhury,  Pandit 
Narendranath  Jyotiratna,  and  Joytish  Siddhanta 
Kesari  Venkata  Subba  Sastry  of  Madras. 

We  have  received  great  help  from  C.  G.  Rajan, 
B.A.,  Sowcarpet,  Madras.  He  has  kindly  furnished 


X' 


PBEFAOE' 


us  with  valuable  suggestions  regarding  'Rules  for 
fixing  the  dates  of  festivals  for  South  India’. 

We  are  indebted  to  the  Astronomer  Royal  of  Great 
Britairi,  Sir  Harold  Spencer  Jones,  and  to  -Mr.  Sadler, 
head  of  the  Ephemerides  divison  of  the  Royal 
Observatory  of  U.  K.  for  having  very  kindly  supplied 
us  with  certain  advance  data  relating  to  the  sun  and 
.the  moon  which  have  facilitated  our  calculations.  We 
have  to  thank  the  great  oriental  scholar,  Otto  Neuge- 
bauer  for  having  helped  us  in  clearing  many  obscure 
points  in.  ancient  calendaric  astronomy.  We  wish  to 
express  our  thanks  to  Prof.  P.  C.  Sengupta  for  helping 
us  in  clearing  many  points  of  ancient  and  medieval 
Indian  astronomy. 


We  have  reproduped  figures  from  pertain  books 
and  oujr  acknowledgement  is  due  to  the  publishers.  It 
was  however  not  possible  to  obtain  previous  permission 
from  them,  but  the  sources  have  been  mentioned  at 
the  relevant  places. 

It  is  a  great  pleasure  and  privilege  to  express  our 
gratitude  to  our  colleagues  of  the  Calendar  Committer 
for  their  active  co-operation  in  the  deliberations  of  the 
Committee,  and  ungrudging  help  whenever  it  was 
sought  for. 

M.  N.  Saha 

Calcutta,  Chairman 

The  10th  Nov.,  1955.  N.  C.  Lahiri 

Secretary 


CONTENDS 


l-AliJS 


Message  from  the  Prime  Minister  ...  iii 

Members  of  the  Calendar  Reform  Committee  ...  v 

Transliteration  ...  vi 

Preface  . . .  vii 

PART  A 

Introductory  ...  1 

Appointment  of  the  Committee  ...  4 

Pinal  Recommendations  of  the  Committee  6 


Annkxore: 

I— Proceedings  of  the  First  Meeting 


of  the  Committee  ...  9 

II— Proceedings  of  the  Second  Meeting 

of  the  Committee  ...  15 

III —  Proceedings  of  the  Third  Meeting  of 

the  Committee  ...  17 

IV —  A  Summary  of  reasons  for  the  dissen¬ 

ting  note  by  Dr.  K.  L.  Daftari  ...  18 

V —  List  of  Pancangas  received  ...  21 

VI — Questionnaire  ...  22 

Replies  to  questionnaire  ...  23 

VII — Summary  of  suggestions  for  Indian 
Calendar  Reform  received  from 
different  persons  and  institutions  ...  32 


PART  B 

Explanation  ....  40 


Reformed  Calendar  Of  india  for  each  month 

of  the  five  years  1876  to  1880  fsaka  >41-100 

General  rules  for  religious  festivals  ...  101 

Lunar  festivals  . . .  102 

Solar  festivals  ...  106 

Criteria  of  some  festivals  for  South  India  ...  106 

Certain  special  tithis  and  combinations  . . .  107 

Certain  special  Yogas  ...  .  108 

Tithis,  Nakgatras,  Muhurtas  and  their 

lords  ...  109 

Yogas  &  Karapas  ...  110 

Alphabetical  list  of  festivals  ...  Ill 

Sunrise  *0d  sunset  for  certain  important  places  ...  116 

LIST  OF  HOLIDAYS  ...  117 

Consolidated  list  of  'holidays  for  all  States 
of  India — 

A— Fixed  holidays  &  Solar  festivals  ...  117 

B — Lunar  festivals  ...  119 

Moslem  festivals  ...  125 

Christian  festivals  ...  126 


?K&E 

Government  of  India  Holidays  . . .  127 

List  of  Holidays  for  different 
States  of  India — 

Assam  Holidays  ...  128 

Bihar  „  ...  129 

Bombay  „  ...  130 

Madlmya  Pradesh  Holidays  ...  131 

Madras  „  ...  132 

Orissa  „  ...  133 

East  Punjab  ,,  ...  134 

Uttar  Pradesh  ,,  ...  .  135 

West  Bengal  ,,  ...  136 

Hyderabad  „  ....  137 

Jammu  &  Kashmir  „  ...  138 

Madhya  Bharat'  „  ...  139 

Mysore  „  ...  140 

Patiala  &  East  Punjab  States 

Union  Holidays  ...  141 

Rajasthan  Holidays  ....  142 

Saurashtra  ,,  •  >  ...  143 

Travancore-Coohin  „  ...  144 

Ajmer  „  ...  145 

Bhopal  „  ...  146 

Bilaspur  „  ...  147 

Coorg  „  ...  148 

Delhi  „  ...  149 

Himachal  Pradesh  „  ...  150 

Kutch  „  ...  151 

Manipur  „  ...  152 

Tripura  „  ...  153 

Vindhya  Pradesh  „  ...  154 


PART  C 

History  of  the  Calendar  in  different  countries 
through  the  ages 

CHAPTER 


I — General  Principles  of  Calendar  Making 

157-163 

1.1 

Introduction 

157 

1.2 

The  natural  periods  of  time 

157 

1.3 

The  problems  of  the  Calendar 

158 

1.4 

Subdivisions  of  the  day 

159 

1.5 

Ahargana  or  heap  of  days  :  Julian 

days 

161 

II— The 

Solar  Calendar 

164-173 

2.1 

Time  reckonings  in  ancient  Egypt 

164 

2.2 

Solar  calendars  of  other  ancient  nations 

165 

2.3 

The  Iranian  Calendar 

166 

xii 


CONTENTS 


LPTBR' 

PAGE  1 

2.4 

The  French  Revolution  Calendar 

167 

2.5 

The  Roman  Calendar 

168 

2.6 

The  Gregorian  Calendar 

170 

2.7 

The’. 'World  Calendar 

171 

IXI-^-The  Luni-Solar  and  Lunar  Calendars  174-180 

3.1 

Principles  of  luni-solar  calendars 

174 

.  3.2 

Moon’s  synodic  period  or  lunation  : 

Empirical  relation  between  the  year 

and  the  month 

175 

3.3 

The  luni-solar  calendars  of  the  Babylonians, 

the  Macedonians,  the  Romans  and  the 

Jews 

176 

3.4 

The  introduction  of  the  era 

177 

3.5 

The  Jewish  Calendar 

179 

3.6 

The  Islamic  Calendar  - 

179 

IV — Calendaric  Astronomy  TRl-QAlt 

41 

The  Moon’s  movement  in  the  sky 

181 

4.2 

Long  period  observations  of  the  moon  : 

The  Chaldean  Saros 

184‘ 

4.3 

The  Gnomon 

188 

4.4 

Night  observations  :  the  celestial  - 

pole  and  the  equator 

190 

4.5 

The  apparent  path  of  the  sun  in  the  sky 

The  Ecliptic 

191 

4.6 

The  Zodiac  and  the  Signs 

192 

4.7 

Chaldean  contributions  to  astronomy  : 

BS»e  of  planetary  and  horosoopic 

astrology 

194 

4.8 

Greek  contributions  to  astronomy 

201 

4.9 

Discovery  of  the  precession  of  the 

equinoxes  ••• 

204 

CHAPTER  PAG* 

Appendix  : 

4-A — Newton’s  explanation  of  the 

precession  of  the  equinoxes  ...  207 

4-B — Stars  of  the  lunar  mansions  ...  210 


V— Indian  Calendar 


212-270 


5.1  The  periods  in  Indian  history  . . .  212 

5.2  Calendar. in  the  Rg-Vedic  age  ...  214 

5.3  Calendaric  references  in  the  Yajur-Vedic 

literaturl  •••  218 

5.4  The  Vedanga  Jyotiga  Calendar  ...  221 

5.5  Critical  review  of  the  inscriptional 

records  about  calendar  ...  226 

5.6  Solar  Calendar  in  the  Siddhanta  Jyotiija 

period  •  •  •  234 

5.7  Lunar  Calendar  in  the  Siddhanta  Jyotuja 

period  •••  246 

5.8  Indian  Eras  •••  251 


Appendix  : 

5- A — The  Seasons 

5-B— The  Zero-point  of  the  Hindu  Zodiac... 
5-C— Gnomon  measurements  in  the  Aitareya 
Brahmapa 

5_X) — Precession  of  the  Equinoxes  amongst 
Indian  Astronomers 
5-E — The  Jovian  years 

Corrigenda  and  Addenda  *** 

Bibliography 

Index 


269 

262 

286 

m 

m 

~2ZL 

272 

274 


THE  ZODIAC  THROUGH  THE  AGES 


WSMBKm 


•  .  v/ii 

V  r;.  4 


'  M&  .'V.  * 


magnitudes. 
First  • 
Second  • 

Third  • 
Fourth  , 

Fifth 


POSITIONS  OF  THE  FIRST  POINT  OF 
ARIES  (T)  IN  DIFFERENT  TIMES. 

V=  Vedic  Times  about  2300  B.C, 

H  -  Hipparcboj 
PI —Ptolemy 
Si  —  Surya  Siddhonlo 
St=. 

5i=  ; 

M  =  Modern 


HO  B.C. 
150  A.D. 
185  A.D. 
500  A  D- 
570  A.D. 
1950  A3, 


REPORT  OF  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


PART-A 

INTRODUCTORY 


In  India  there  is  at  present  a  terrible  calendar 
confusion. 

For  official  purposes,  India  has  been  using  the 
Gregorian  calendar  since  the  imposition  of  the  British 
rule  in  1757.  As  the  Gregorian  calendar,  on  account 
of  historic  reasons,  has  attained  the  status  of  a  World 
Calendar,  it  is  still  being  used  for  official  purposes  after 
the  attainment  of  Independence.  There  is  a  proposal 
sponsored  by  India  before  the  UNO  for  the  intro¬ 
duction  of  a  new  World  Calendar  for  civil  and 
administrative  purposes  in  place  of  the  Gregorian 
calendar,  which  is  inconvenient  and  unscientific 
(  vide  C  §  2-7  ). 

During  the  period  of  Moslem  supremacy  (1200-1757), 
the  lunar  Hejira  calendar  had  been  used  both  for 
administrative  as  well  as  for  Moslem  religious  purposes, 
except  for  a  short  period  (1556-1630),  when  on  the 
initiative  of  the  Emperor  Akbar,  its  use  was  prohibited 
and  a  form  of  the  Iranian  solar  calendar  (the  Jelali 
calendar),  under  the  name  Tankh  Ilahi,  was  intro¬ 
duced.  The  Hejira  calendar  is  now  used  only  by 
the  followers  of  Islam  for  fixing  up  the  dates  of  their 
religious  festivals. 

Before  the  advent  of  Moslem  domination,  the 
different  states  of  India  used  a  bewildering  variety  of 
calendars  for  civil  as  well  as  religious  purposes  of 
which  a  detailed  account  is  given  in  C  §5.  The  ascrip¬ 
tions  of  Indian  kings  from  the  first  century  A.D.  to 
medieval  times  are  dated  according  to  these  calendars, 
and  it  is  often  a  headache  for  the  Indologist  to  find 
out  the  starting  point  of  the  eras  used  in  these 
calendars. 

Most  of  these  calendars  have  gone  out  of  use  for 
civil  purposes,  but  some  are  being  still  used  for  fixing 
up  the  dates  and  moments  of  religious  festivals  of 
communities  following  different,  schools  of  Hinduism 
and  other  religions  having  their  origin  in  India 
(Buddhism,  Jainism).  They  use  different  eras,  different 
year-beginnings,  and  sometimes  different  methods  of 
calculations  based  on  the  three  Siddhantas  (scientific 
astronomical  treatises),  viz.,  the  Surya,  the  Arya,  and 
the  Brahma ,  all  dating  from  ancient  and  medieval 
times. 

These  practices  often  produce  a  bewildering  con¬ 
fusion  in  fixing  up  dates  and  moments  of  observance 
of  the  religious  festivals,  of  which  some  detailed 
examples  are  given  later.  The  Calendar  Reform 


Committee  was  asked  to  make  a  study  of  the  various 
Hindu  religious  calendars,  and  recommend  to  the 
Government  a  Unified  National  Calendar  for  Hindu 
religious  purposes  for  the  whole  of  India.  The 
Committee  has  now  finished  its  labours,  and  presents 
its  report  to  the  Government.  The  main  points  are 
summarized  below  : 

The  Hindu  religious  calendar  is  mainly  luni-solar, 
i.e.,  the  seasons  are  fixed  by  the  solar  calendar,  while 
the  dates  and  moments  are  fixed  according  to  the 
lunar  calendar  pegged  on  to  it. 

The  calendar  therefore  depends  on  the  science  of 
astronomy  which  has  evolved  methods  for  correctly 
predicting  the  positions  of  the  sun,  the  moon,  and  the 
planets  (the  Ephemerides).  The  astronomical  part  of 
the  calculations  should  be  the  same  for  calendars  used 
by  all  nations.  But  this  is  not  the  whole  story  ;  for 
the  calendar  also  depends  on  convention,  which  varies 
widely  from  country  to  country  and  from  state  to  state. 

Let  us  give  some  idea  of  the  Science  as  well  as  of 
the  Conventions  in  use  for  the  solar  and  the  lunar 
calendars  respectively.  For  the  solar  calendar  : 

(1)  The  year  should  be  properly  defined,  and  the 
year-length  taken  should  be  astronomically  correct. 

(2)  The  seasons  should  be  properly  defined,  and 
should  start  on  proper  dates. 

(3)  The  day  should  start  from  midnight. 

An  examination  of  Chap.  XIV  of  the  Surya- 
Siddhania  ( vide  C  §  5-6)  shows  that  the  author  of 
this  famous  treatise  accepted  these  principles  and  laid 
down  the  following  rules  for  the  compilation  of 
a  calendar  ; 

(1)  The  year  should  start  from  the  instant  when 
the  sun  crosses  the  vernal  equinoctial  point  and  the 
length  of  the  year  should  therefore  be  tropical  (sayana). 

(2)  The  seasons  should  consist  of  two  solar  months, 
each  defined  by  the  time  taken  by  the  sun  to  traverse 
30'  of  the  sun’s  path  (the  ecliptic). 

(3)  The  day  should  be  from  midnight  ( ardharatrika 
system)  for  purposes  of  astronomical  calculations. 

These  principles  do  not  alone  suffice  to  define  the 
calendar,  for  the  year  does  not  consist  of  a  whole 
number  of  days,  but  its  length  (length  of  the  tropical 
year)  is  approximately  365-2422  mean  solar  days.  The 
time  taken  by  the  sun  to  traverse  30'  of  the  arc  of 
the  ecliptic  varief  from  29-44  days  to  31-46  days. 


2 


REPORT  OF  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


For  civil  purposes,  both  the  year  and  the  month 
should  consist  of  a  whole  number  of  days,  and  the  civil 
day  (  savana  ),  according  to  Hindu  religious  practices, 
should  start  from  sunrise.  To  achieve  these  purposes, 
different  conventions  have  been  used  in  different 
states  which  account  partly  for  calendar  confusion 
(  vide  C  §  5-6  ). 

But  the  most  serious  mistake  has  been  in  the  length 
of  the  year  taken  by  the  Surya  Siddhanta,  a  standard 
astronomical  compilation  having  its  beginning  from 
the  4th  century  A.D.  The  year-length  adopted  is 
365-25876  days,  which  is  presumably  sidereal,  but  even 
then  the  length  is  wrong  by  +  0.00240  days.  But  as  is 
pointed  out  in  C  §  5-6,  the  Surya  Siddhanta  lays  down 
definitely  that  the  year-length  should  be  tropical 
which,  according  to  modern  measurements,  should  have 
approximately  365-2422  days,  but  this  rule  has  been 
misinterpreted. 

The  mistakes  in  astronomical  constants  ( e.g .,  in  the 
fixing  up  of  the  length  of  the  year  or  months)  are 
common  in  all  ancient  astronomical  treatises,  whether 
Indian  or  occidental,  but  in  the  West,  the  correct 
values  were  obtained  later  by  refined  observations 
during  medieval  times  and  were  then  adopted  for 
calendar  calculations  by  edicts  of  dictators  like  Julius 
Caesar  or  Pope  Gregory  XIII  on  the  advice  of  astro¬ 
nomers.  In  India,  astronomical  observations  stopped 
from  about  1200  A.D.  after  the  advent  of  the  Turkish 
invaders,  when  Indian  observatories  were  either 
destroyed  or  abandoned  by  the  astronomers  and 
calendar  making  fell  into  the  hands  of  astrologers,  who 
had  to  depend  on  ancient  treatises. 

But  a  far  more  potent  cause  for  the  adherence  to 
the  wrong  value  was  the  failure,  on  the  part  of  the 
Indian  astronomers,  to  grasp  the  real  nature  of  the 
phenomenon  of  Precession  of  Equinoxes  ( vide  C  §  4’10). 
In  this,  they  were  not  alone,  fpr  the  false  notions 
about  this  phenomenon  were  not  abandoned  even  in 
Europe  till  the  advent  of  Newton  (1687). 

The  Indian  year  is  thus  longer  than  the  tropical 
year  by  0.01656  days,  and  this  error  has  been  accumul¬ 
ating  for  nearly  1400  years  with  the  result  that  the 
solar  year,  instead  of  starting  on  the  day  following  the 
vernal  equinox  (21st  March)  as  it  did  in  the  time  of 
Varahamihira  starts  nearly  23-24  days  later.  Thus 
the  year-beginning  as  laid  down  by  our  almanac-makers 
has  lost  all  connection  with  the  actual  year-beginning 
(  the  day  following  the  vernal  equinoctial  day )  as 
contemplated  by  the  Surya  Siddhanta ,  and  the  festivals 
as  given  by  the  Indian  almanacs  are  being  celebrated 
very  frequently  in  wrong  seasons.  If  &arat  Pur&ima 
is  celebrated  in  the  Hemanta  season,  as  would  happen 
in  the  year  1955,  it  is  obvious  that  our  almanacs  are 
following  neither  the  Scriptures  nor  Science. 


The  Calendar  Committee  has  tried  to  rectify  this 
fundamental  error,  by  recommending,  as  laid  down  by 
the  Surya  Siddhanta ,  that  the  year  should  begin  on  the 
day  after  the  vernal  equinox,  and  the  year-length 
should  be  sayana. 

LENGTHS  OF  THE  SOLAR  MONTHS : 

The  Hindu  solar  month-lengths  vary  from  29  to  32, 
as  the  time  of  passing  30°  of  the  ecliptic  varies,  accord¬ 
ing  to  older  data  given  in  the  Surya  Siddhanta  from 
29-32  days  to  31-64  days.  These  varying  lengths,  as  is 
well-known,  can  be  understood  only  from  Kepler’s  first 
two  laws,  which  were  explained  fully  by  Newton  in 
1687  on  the  basis  of  dynamics  and  law  of  universal 
gravitation,  but  these  laws  and  their  explanation  were 
unknown  to  astronomers  in  400  A.D.  Further  these 
month-lengths  are  different  in  the  three  Siddhantas  be¬ 
cause  they  were  calculated  according  to  three  different 
formulae.  On  account  of  the  ignorance  of  Kepler’s  laws 
and  of  the  shift  of  the  equinoctial  lines  in  the  Earth’s 
orbit  (  vide  C  §  5'6)  the  ancient  astronomers  probably 
assumed  that  the  times  of  passage  through  30° 
as  calculated  according  to  formulae  given  by  them 
would  be  valid  for  all  times.  But  we  now  know  this 
assumption  to  be  incorrect,  and  cannot  stick  to 
the  lengths  as  given  in  the  Siddhantas,  which  also 
differ  amongst  themselves. 

Further,  all  the  numbers  expressing  month-lengths 
are  fractional,  and  different  states,  vix.,  Bengal,  Orissa, 
Tamil  Nad  use  different  conventions  for  defining  the 
day  of  the  solar  samkrSnti  (  vide  C  §  5‘6  )  i.e.,  the 
civil  day  (sunrise  to  sunrise)  which  should  be  regarded 
as  the  day  when  the  sun  passes  successive  30°  of  arc, 
beginning  from  the  Hindu  zero-point.  The  different 
conventions  have  their  own  merits,  let  the  orthodox 
Bengalee,  Oriya,  or  Tamil  Pandit  argue  it  out  amongst 
themselves,  but  we  feel  that  a  convention  which  makes 
the  solar  month  vary  from  29  to  32  is  very  inconve¬ 
nient  for  civil  life,  and  we  are  quite  sure  that  if  the 
authors  of  the  Siddhantas  were  aware  of  Kepler’s 
Laws  and  the  shifting  of  equinoctial  lines  on  the 
Earth’s  orbit,  they  would  never  have  prescribed  rules 
which  would  make  the  number  of  days  in  a  solar 
month  vary  from  29  to  32.  We  have,  therefore, 
assigned  lengths  of  30  and  31  days  to  the  months.  But 
the  moment  of  the  sun’s  traversing  any  multiple  of  the 
30th  degree  from  the  vernal  equinoctial  point  has 
been  indicated. 

We  have  recommended  the  SAKA  era,  as  this  is 
the  era  par  excellence  used  by  all  Indian  astronomers, 
and  had  been  used  and  is  still  used  for  calendaric 
calculations  all  over  India,  since  the  days  of  the  Ujjain 
astronomers  (first  century  A.D.).  This  is  the  only 
era  used  in  all  Indian  scientific  treatises.  For  other 
eras  see  C  §  5-8. 


REPORT  OP  THE.  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


3 


The  new  solar  calendar  is  scientific,  applicable  to 
all  parts  of  India,  and  follows  the  Surya  Siddhania  in 
all  essential  points,  and  is  absolutely  sound  as  regards 
its  astronomical  basis.  The  conventions  have  been 
revised  with  the  sole  object  of  having  a  uniform 
system  for  the  whole  of  India. 


THE  LUNAR  CALENDAR  : 

The  lunar  calendar  depends  on  the  correct  calcula¬ 
tion  of  the  moments  of  conjunction  ( Amavasya ),  oppo¬ 
sition  (Paurriamdsi)  and  of  the  tithis  (i.e.,  the  moments 
when  the  moon  gains  12°  or  its  integral  multiple  on 
the  sun).  The  Indian  calendar-makers  use  for  this 
purpose  the  formulae  on  lunar  motion  given  in  the 
three  Siddhantas.  But  as  these  are  known  to  be  inac¬ 
curate,  they  use  certain  corrections  called  bija  intro¬ 
duced  by  later  Indian  astronomers. 

It  is  now  well-known  that  the  motion  of  the  moon 
is  very  irregular  and  complex,  and  therefore  the  moon 
is  very  inconvenient  as  a  time-marker.  For  this  reason 
the  moon  was  completely  discarded  by  the  Egyptians 
as  a  time-marker  3000  years  before  Christ.  The  an¬ 
cient  Egyptian  solar  calendar  is  the  basis  from  which 
the  present  Gregorian  calendar  has  sprung. 

But  other  ancient  and  modern  nations  did  not 
follow  the  Egyptians,  and  it  became  the  chief  duty  on 
the  part  of  their  astronomers  to  observe  the  moon 
from  day  to  day,  and  evolve  mathematical  formulae 
from  which  the  ephemerides  of  the  moon  could  be 
calculated.  As  Neugebauer  has  shown  ( Exact  Sciences 
in  Antiquity ),  ancient  Babylonian  astronomy  (700  B.C.- 
300  B.C.)  was  largely  centred  round  devising, ,  from 
actual  observations  of  the  moon’s  position,  mathemati¬ 
cal  formulae,  which  would  enable  them  to  calculate  the 
longitude  of  the  moon  in  advance.  These  attempts  were 
continued  by  the  Greeks,  Indians,  Arabs  and  medieval 
Europeans  and  are  still  being  continued.  For  the 
calculation  of  the  moon’s  position,  formulae  are 
employed  which  require  twenty  pages  of  printed 
matter,  containing  about  1,500  terms  in  all.  They  have 
been  evolved  as  measurements  have  become  more 
refined  and  accurate,  with  the  progress  of  astronomy  ; 
and  were,  of  course,  unknown  to  astronomers  of 
ancient  times. 


Effect  of  Indian  Lunar  Calendars  : 

As  the  orthodox  Indian  calendar-maker  still  uses 
the  old  formulae  dating  from  400  A.D.,  his  calcula¬ 
tions  of  the  ending  moments  of  tithis  do  not  agree 
with  .those  given  by  the  (Nautical  Almanacs,  which 
are  based  on  modern  formulae  and  are  verified  by 
actual  observations  as  shown  in  the  following  example  : 


Ending  Moments  of  Tithis 


Date 

Tithi 

Modem 

(i.S.T.) 

Old  Method 

(I.S.T.) 

Error  in  the 
old  method. 

1954. 

h  m 

h  m 

h  m 

Sept. 

27 

30 

6  20 

5  4 

- 

1  16 

n 

30 

3 

12  50 

10  24 

— 

2  26 

Oct. 

3 

6 

20  21 

16  7 

- 

4  14 

6 

9 

24  3 

18  31 

— 

5  32 

» 

9 

12 

20  20 

16  30 

- 

3  50 

12 

15 

10  40 

11  2 

+ 

0  22 

n 

14 

18 

23  36 

27  57 

+  ' 

4  21 

» 

17 

21 

15  47 

21.  25 

+ 

5  38 

w 

20 

24 

13  44 

17  26 

+ 

3  42 

n 

23 

27 

16  55 

17  39 

+ 

0  44 

1} 

26 

30 

23  17 

22  8 

— 

1  9 

Some 

of  the 

Indian  calendar-makers 

are  aware  of 

these  discrepancies,  and  give  the  ending  moments  of 
tithis  according  to  the  Nautical  Almanac.  But  all  of 
them  give  the  moments  of  beginning  and  ending  of  lunar 
and  solar  eclipses  according  to  the  Nautical  Almanac, 
as  times  calculated  according  to  the  Siddhantas  may  be 
grossly  inaccurate,  and  the  mistakes  would  at  once 
catch  public  attention  and  lower  their  prestige.  In  the 
words  of  one  of  our  colleagues  (Dr.  Gorakh  Prasad), 
these  almanac-makers  are  like  bicycle-riders  riding 
without  lamps,  who  get  down  from  their  cycles  on  street 
corners,  just  to  avoid  being  caught  by  the  Police. 

The  calculations  of  tithis  given  by  the  Calendar 
Committee  follow  the  Nautical  Almanac,  and  are 
based  on  correct  positions  of  the  moon  and  the  sun. 

The  Committee  has  made  another  radical  departure. 
According  to  conventions  laid  down  in  Dharmaidstras, 
a  religious  festival  is  to  be  observed  in  a  locality  when 
the  prescribed  tithi  is  current  at  a  particular  hour  of 
the  civil  day  of  that  locality.  But  on  the  same  day  and 
hour,  the  tithi  may  vary  from  locality  to  locality  and 
this,  taken  with  the  mistakes  in  calculating  tithi 
according  to  ancient  methods,  may  produce  a  day’s 
difference  in  fixing  up  the  dates  of  religious  festivals. 

If  the  different  almanac-makers  calculate  the  tithi 
not  according  to  the  Nautical  Almanac,  but  according 
to  different  Indian  astronomical  treatises,  the 
moment  of  the  tithi  may  differ  by  as  much  as  five 
hours,  and  the  same  festival,  say  the  Dussera  (or 
Durgd  Pujd)  may  be  fixed  on  two  successive  days  in 
the  same  city,  as  happend  in  Calcutta  in  the  case  of 
Durgd  Pujd  in  1952  and  Sarasvatl  Pujd  in  1953.  Which 
set  of  Pandits  is  to  be  followed  by  the  Government  in 
fixing  up  the  date  of  holidays  in  such  cases  ? 

The  Committee  has  taken  the  view  that  the  ending 
moments  of  tithis  should  be  given  according  to  modern 
calculations  (which  would  naturally  agree  with  Nautical 
Almanacs)  and  the  tithi  current  for  the  Central 
Station  (  82|°  E.  Long,  and  23°  11'  N.  Lat. )  should  be 
the  tithi  for  the  whole  of  India.  This  is  a  very 


4 


REPORT  OF  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


sensible  proposition,  for  if  we  have  to  follow  the 
Siddhantic  convention  to  the  letter,  then  even  if  the 
calculations  are  given  correctly,  every  station  would 
have  its  own  tithi ,  just  as  according  to  Relativity, 
every  moving  particle  has  its  own  time.  But  the 
Pandits  are  not  correct  in  their  own  claims  that  they 
are  following  the  &astras  correctly  ;  for  a  Banaras 
almanac  is  according  to  Siddhantic  convention,  true 
only  for  Banaras,  but  may  on  certain  occasions,  be 
incorrect  for  a  place  even  a  mile  from  Banaras.  So 
the  Siddhantic  convention  was  laid  down  in  an 
age  when  there  was  no  printing  presses  and  no 
printed  almanacs,  but  almanacs  were  to  be  fixed 
up  and  recited  for  every  locality  by  local  astrologers 
according  to  their  own  calculations.  If  it  has  still 
to  be  followed,  every  village  should  print  its  own 
almanac.  In  laying  down  the  principle  that  the 
whole  of  India  should  follow  the  tithi  calculated 
for  a  central  locality,  we  are  no  more  violating  the 
Siddhantic  convention  than  the  calculators  of  the 
Banaras  or  Calcutta  almanacs  which  have  currency 
over  wide  areas  far  away  from  their  own  city. 


In  course  of  fixing  the  festivals  of  different  states 
in  the  Reformed  Calendar,  it  has  been  found  that 
different  conventions  are  followed  in  different  states  in 
the  matter  of  fixation  of  the  same  festival.  For  example 
it  may  be  quoted  that  in  1954  Janma§\ami  was 
observed  on  the  21st  August  in  North  India  and  on 
the  20th,  21st  and  22nd  in  other  parts  of  India. 
Rdmanavami  was  observed  in  Bengal  on  24th  March, 
1953,  while  it  was  celebrated  on  the  preceding  day  in 
upper  India.  The  calculation  of  the  ending  moment 
of  tithi  is  not  the  cause  for  such  discrepancies  in  this 
case,  but  the  difference  in  convention  is  solely 
responsible.  We  have  followed  all  these  differences 
of  conventions  in  the  state-wise  fixation  of  the  dates 
of  festivals,  as  far  as  practicable.  We  are  however  of 
opinion  that  a  uniform  convention  should  be  followed 
throughout  India  in  this  matter  also.  In  order  to 
explore  the  possibilities  of  such  unification,  it  is 
desirable  that  necessary  steps  should  be  taken  by 
the  Government.  The  Ephemerides  Committee  which 
we  have  recommended  may  be  entrusted  with 
this  work. 


APPOINTMENT  OF  THE  COMMITTEE 


The  Council  of  Scientific  and  Industrial  Research 
appointed  in  November  1952,  a  Calendar  Reform 
Committee  with-Prof.  M.N.  Saha,  F.R.S.,  as  Chairman 
and  six  other  members  {vide  their  letter  No.  144  Bd. 
(G.  P.)/52  dated  the  11th  November,  1952,  intimating 
the  decision  of  the  Governing  Body  meeting  held  on 
13.  8.  52)  as  follows  : — 

The  Calendar  Reform  Committee 

1.  Prof.  M.  N.  Saha,  F.R.S.  •••  Chairman 

2.  Prof.  A.  C.  Banerji,  Vice-Chancellor, 

Allahabad  University,  Allahabad  Member 

3.  Dr.  K.  L.  Daftari,  Nagpur  •••  Member 

4.  Shri  J.  S.  Karandikar,  Ex-Editor, 

The  Kesari,  Poona  ...  Member 

5.  Prof.  R.  V.  Vaidya,  Ujjain  Member 

6.  Dr.  Gorakh  Prasad,  Allahabad  •••  Member 

7.  Shri  N.  C.  Lahiri,  M.A.,  Calcutta  Member 

[N.  B.  Numbers  6  and  7  were  appointed  in  place 

of  Prof.  S.  N.  Bose  and  Dr.  Akbar  Ali,  who  were 
originally  appointed  by  the  Governing  Body,  but 
regretted  their  inability  to  serve,  vide  C.S.I.R.  letter 
No.T44  Bd.  (G.  R.)/52,  dated  the  21st  January,  1953]. 

The  terms  of  reference  are  as  follows  : — 

The  Committee  has  been  entrusted  with  the  task  of 
“ examining  all  the  existing  calendars  which  are  being 
followed  in  the  country  at  present  and  after  a  scientific 
study  of  the  subject,  submit  proposals  for  an  accurate 
and  uniform  calendar  for  the  whole  of  India.” 


COMMITTEE  MEETINGS 

The  Committee  had  three  meetings  and  have  now 
finalized  their  recommendations  to  Government. 

I.  The  first  meeting  was  held  at  10  A.M.  on 
Saturday,  the  21st  February,  1953,  in  the  C.S.I.R. 
Secretariat  Buildings,  Old  Mill  Road,  New  Delhi,  and 
it  continued  also  on  the  23rd  February.  The  Prime 
Minister  sent  a  message  and  Shri  K.  D.  Malaviya 
Deputy  Minister,  Natural  Resources  and  Scientific 
Research,  inaugurated  the  meeting.  The  proceedings 
of  the  meeting  will  be  found  in  Armexure  I. 

After  discussion  on  the  several  points  mentioned 
by  the  Chairman,  the  Committee  arrived  at  certain 
decisions  and  adopted  the  following  resolutions  : — 

(1)  The  tropical  year  of  365-2422  days  should  be 
adopted  for  the  purpose  of  calendar  making. 

(2)  A  scientific  civil  solar  calendar  to  be  hence¬ 
forth  called  the  National  Calendar  for  purposes  of 
dating  should  have  its  first  day  after  the  vernal 
equinox  day,  i.e.,  on  the  22nd  March.  But  for  reli¬ 
gious  purposes  the  calculations  may  start  23"  15'  ahead 
of  the  V.  E.  point,  for  sometime  to  come  (  as  a  conces¬ 
sion  to  the  prevailing  custom  ). 

/ 

(3)  The  Saka  era  should  be  adopted  for  the 
reformed  Indian  Calendar. 

(4)  All  calculations  should  be  made  for  a  central 
station  in  India  skuated  at  82$"  East  Longitude  and 
23°  lT  North  Latitude  (latitude  of  Ujjain). 


EBPOET  OP  THE  CALENDAR  EEPOEM  COMMITTEE 


5 


(5)  The  day  should  be  reckoned  from  midnight 
to  midnight  of  the  central  station  for  civil  purposes, 
but  for  religious  purposes  the  local  sunrise  system  may 
be  followed. 

The  Committee  made  the  following  recommenda¬ 
tions  to  the  Government  of  India  : — 

(i)  A  tentative  national  calendar  for  the  whole 
of  India  should  be  prepared  for  five  years  in  advance, 
showing  dates,  days,  months,  tithis  (lunar  days)  and 
nakgatras  (lunar  asterisms). 

(ii)  Steps  should  be  taken  to  compile  an  Indian 
Ephemeris  and  Nautical  Almanac  by  the  Government 
of  India  showing  in  advance  positions  of  the  sun,  the 
moon,  planets  and  other  important  heavenly  bodies. 

(iii)  There  should  be  a  National  Observatory 
at  a  suitable  place  provided  with  modern  equipments, 
apparatus  and  time-service. 

The  Council  of  Scientific  and  Industrial  Research 
accepted  the  first  recommendation  and  appointed 
Shri  N.  C.  Lahiri  and  Prof.  R.  V.  Vaidya,  members  of 
the  Committee,  as  whole-time  workers  for  the  purpose 
of  implementation  of  this  recommendation,  and  also 
provided  them  with  necessary  assistants.  The  experi¬ 
mental  National  Calendar  of  India  for  the  five  years 
1954-55  to  1958-59  A.D.  (Saka  1876  to  1880)  has  accord¬ 
ingly  been  prepared  and  will  be  found  as  Part  B. 

II.  The  second  meeting  of  the  Calendar  Reform 
Committee  was  held  on  the  8th  March,  1954,  at 
TO  A.M.  in  the  C.S.I.R.  Building,  New  Delhi.  In  this 
meeting  the  detailed  methods  of  preparation  of  the 
Reformed  Calendar  were  discussed  and  certain 
resolutions  were  adopted  which  will  be  found  in  the 
proceedings  of  the  meeting  given  in  Anwxure  II. 
The  question  of  adopting  variable  ayanafnsa  was 
discussed,  but  no  final  decision  could  be  taken  in  the 
meeting.  The  Chairman  decided  the  question  later 
after  taking  opinion  of  members  by  correspondence. 
The  following  are  the  principal  points  decided  : — 

(1)  Caitra  (pronounced  as  Chaitra)  should  be  the 
first  solar  month  of  the  year  starting  on  the  day 
following  vernal  equinox,  and  the  names  of  the  solar 
months  should  be  Caitra,  Vaisakha,  etc. 

(2)  The  lengths  of  the  civil  solar  months  be  fixed 
as  follows  : 

Caitra—  30  &  31  days  (31  days  in  a  leap-year), 
Vaisakha — 31,  Jyaitfha — 31,  A?a4ha — 31 
SravatiM — 31,  Bhadra — 31,  Asvina — 30, 
Kartika — 30,  Agrahayarm — 30,  Pau$a — 30, 
Magha — 30,  and  Phalguna — 30  days.  Leap- 
years  should  correspond  with  the  leap-years 
of  the  Gregorian  calendar. 

(3)  The  nak?atras  should  be  calculated  with  a 
variable  ayanafnka,  so  that  they  remain  fixed  with 


respect  to  the  stars  ;  otherwise  the  nak$atra  divisions 
would  lose  all  connections  with  the  stars  or  star-groups 
contained  in  those  nakqatras.  For  this  purpose,  the 
ayan&fnsa  of  23°  15'  should  relate  to  21st  March,  1956, 
the  middle  of  the  five  yearly  period. 

The  calculations  of  the  Reformed  Calendar  for 
five  years,  have  been  revised  in  the  light  of  the  above 
decisions. 

HI.  The  third  and  the  final  meeting  of  the 
Calendar  Reform  Committee  was  held  on  the  13th 
September,  1954,  at  10-0  A.M.  in  the  C.S.I.R. 
Building,  New  Delhi.  In  this  meeting,  the  Reformed 
Calendar  for  five  years,  the  resolutions  so  far 

adopted  and  the  final  report  were  approved  for 

submission.*  The  proceedings  will  be  found  as 

Annexure  III. 

EXAMINATION  OF  THE  EXISTING  CALENDARS 

With  a  view  to  examining  the  existing  calendars, 
as  per  terms  of  reference,  all  the  Pancahga  makers  in 
different  states  of  India  were  requested  by  a  Press 
communique'  issued  by  the  C.S.I.R.  in  March  1953, 
to  send  3  copies  of  their  Pancangas  covering  the  year 
1953-54.  As  a  result  of  this  request  many  calendars 
were  received  from  different  parts  of  India,  a  list  of 
which  is  given  as  Annexure  V.  Some  difficulty 
was  experienced  in  studying  the  exact  nature  of  these 
calendars  due  to  language  difficulty  and  want  of  the 
required  data  in  these  calendars.  Accordingly  a 
questionnaire  was  issued  in  November  1953,  to 
all  these  and  also  to  some  other  calendar  makers 
whose  addresses  were  known,  requesting  them  to 
furnish  certain  data  relating  to  their  calendars. 
The  questionnaire  together  with  the  replies  so  far 
received  will  be  found  as  Annexure  VI. 

SUGGESTIONS  RECEIVED  FOR  CALENDAR  REFORM 

We  have  received  various  suggestions  for  calendar 
reform  from  different  persons.  A  summary  of  these 
suggestions  will  be  found  in  Annexure  VII.  All  the 
suggestions  have  been  examined  in  the  Committee 
meetings  before  finalization  of  the  recommendations 
of  the  Committee.  Some  of  the  suggestions  favour 
the  continuance  of  the  present  inaccurate  system  of 
calendar  making.  But  on  the  other  hand  there  are 
many  persons  and  organizations  who  have  suggested 
that  accurate  and  scientific  calendar,  as  recommended 
by  the  Committee  should  be  adopted. 

HOLIDAYS 

We  have  prepared  tables  (  vide  B  )  giving  dates 
of  various  religious  festivals  and  holidays  observed 
in  different  states  of  India  in  four  categories, 

*The  Chairman  submitted  the  report  to  the  President,  Council 
of  Scientific  and  Industrial  Research,  at  the  Board’s  meeting  on 
the  14th  September,  1954. 


6 


REPORT  OP  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


viz.,  solar,  luni-solar,  Christian  and  Moslem.  Many 
festivals  and  holidays  are  common  in  all  states,  others 
are  different.  A  festival  which  is  considered  very 
important  in  one  state  ( e.g .,  Dussera  or  Durga  Puja,  in 
Bengal  )  may  be  considered  secondary  in  other  regions 
(e.g.,  in  Western  India).  There  are  holidays  confined 
only  to  certain  states.  It  is  hoped  that  the  Central 
Government  may  make  choice  of  such  holidays  which 
should  be  considered  as  Central;  for  obviously  they 
cannot  accept  all  holidays  current  in  India,  as  there 
would  then  be  few  working  days  left. 

On  account  of  shortness  of  time,  it  has  not  been 
found  possible  to  give  planetary  data  except  the 
heliacal  rising  and  setting  of  Jupiter  and  Venus.  These 


are  not  necessary  for  calculation  of  the  dates  and 
moments  of  religious  festivals,  except  in  a  few 
rare  cases  like  the  Kumbha  Mela.  The  Ephemerides 
Committee,  if  it  comes  into  existence,  may  be  entrusted 
with  this  work. 

In  the  compilation  of  the  Reformed  Indian 
Calendar,  we  have  received  invaluable  help  from  Sir 
Harold  Spencer  Jones,  Astronomer  Royal  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  who  provided  us  with  certain 
advance  data  facilitating  our  calculations.  The 
grateful  thanks  of  the  Committee  are  due  to 
him.  We  also  wish  to  thank  our  correspondents, 
many  of  whom  helped  us  with  valuable  data  and 
information. 


FINAL  RECOMMENDATIONS  OF  THE  COMMITTEE 


The  calendar  has  got  two  distinct  uses,  viz.,  civil 
and  religious.  The  Indian  calendars,  in  the  particular 
form  it  has  assumed  in  different  parts  of  the  country, 
are  used  for  the  purpose  of  dating  not  only  by  the 
rural,  but  also  by  a- large  section  of  the  urban  popula¬ 
tion.  On  account  of  the  fact,  as  mentioned  above,  that 
the  usage  of  one  area  differs  from  another,  the 
Committee  recommends  that  the  unified  National 
Calendar  should  be  used  uniformly  in  all  states  of 
India,  for  civil  purposes  wherever  necessary,  in  place 
of  local  calendars. 

RECOMMENDATIONS  FOR  CIVIL  CALENDAR 

(1)  The  Saka  era  should  be  used  in  the  unified 

national  calendar.  The  year  1954-55  A.D.  corresponds 

to  1876  Saka  or  in  other  words  the  year  1954  A.D. 

/  * 

corresponds  to  1875-76  Saka. 

(2)  The  year  should  start  from  the  day  following 
the  vernal  equinox  day. 

(3)  A  normal  year  would  consist  of  365  days 
while  a  leap-year  would  have  366  days.  After  adding 
78  to  the  Saka  era,  if  the  sum  is  divisible  by  4,  then 
it  is  a  leap-year.  But  when  the  sum  becomes  a  multiple 
of  100,  it  would  be  a  leap-year  only  when  it  is 
divisible  by  400,  otherwise  it  would  be  a  common  year. 

The  years  Saka  1878,  1882,  1886,  1890,  1894  etc., 
are  leap-years  consisting  of  366  days  each.  But  the 
years  2022,  2122,  2222  and  again  2422,  2522,  2622  Saka 
are  not  leap-years,  while  1922,  2322,  2722  Saka  are 
leap-years. 

(4)  Caitra  (  pronounced  as  Chaitra  )  should  be  the 
first  month  of  the  year,  and  the  lengths  of  the  different 
months  would  be  fixed  as  follows  : — 

Caitra  30  days  (  31  days  in  a  leap-year  ) 

Vaisakha  31  days 

Jyaigtha  31  * 

Agadha  31  ” 


Sravaija  31  days 
Bhadra  31  ” 

Asvina  30  ” 

Kartika  30  ” 

Agrahayaija 
(Margaslrga)  30  * 

Pauga  30  ” 

Magha  30  • 

Phalguna  30  ” 

Corresponding  dates  The  dates  of  the  reformed 
Indian  calendar  would  thus  have  a  permanent  corres¬ 
pondence  with  the  dates  of  the  present  Gregorian 
calendar.  The  corresponding  dates  are  as  follows  : — 


Indian  Calendar 

Gregorian  Calendar 

Caitra 

1 

March  22  in  a  common  year 
&  March  21  in  a  leap-year. 

Vaisakha 

1 

April 

21 

Jyaigtha 

1 

May 

22 

Aga<Jha 

1 

June 

22 

SrSyaija 

1 

July 

23 

Bhadra 

1 

August 

23 

Asvina 

1 

September 

23 

Kartika 

1 

October 

23 

Agrahayaija  1 

November 

22 

Pauga 

1 

December 

22 

Magha 

1 

January 

21 

Phalguna 

1 

February 

20 

The  Indian  seasons 

would  thus 

be  permanently 

fixed  with  respect  to  the  reformed  calendar,  as 
follows  : — 

Seasons  Calendar  months 

Grlgma  (  Summer  )  ...  Vai&akha  &  Jyaigtha 

V arg5  (  Rains  )  . .  AgScJha  &  Sravaija 

Sarat  (  Autumn  )  . .  Bhadra  &  Asvina 

Hemanta  (Late  Autumn) . . .  Kartika  &  Agrahayaija 
Sisira  (  Winter  )  Pauga  &  Magha 

Vasanta  (  Spring  )  Phalguna  &  Caitra 


REPORT  OF  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


7 


In  course  of  implementation  of  these  recommenda¬ 
tions,  the  states  now  having  the  solar  calendar  for  civil 
and  partly  religious  purposes  which  start  the  year 
from  VaiSdkha  1  (  April  14  ),  will  have  to  begin  the 
year  23  days  earlier,  but  the  first  month  will  be  Caitra. 
The  effect  of  this  on  the  states  are  as  follows  : 

Bengal,  Orissa,  Solar  months  start  approximately 

&  Assam  :  seven  days  later  than  now, 

Tamil  Nad  :  Solar  months  start  approximately 

23  days  earlier  than  now, 

for  the  month  called  Vai&akha  (14th  April — 14th  May) 
in  Bengal  and  Orissa  is  called  Chittirai  or  Caitra  in 
Tamil  Nad. 

Those  who  use  the  Cadtradi  lunar  calendar  also 
for  civil  purposes,  would  however  experience  no  great 
difficulty  in  adopting  this  unified  calendar,  as  they 
have  at  present  the  beginning  of  their  year  varying 
from  15th  March  to  13th  April,  and  the  first  month 
is  Caitra. 

RECOMMENDATIONS  for  religious  calendar 

(5)  The  calculation  of  solar  ( saura )  months 
necessary  for  determining  the  lunar  months  of  the 
same  name,  will  start  23°  15'  ahead  of  the  vernal 
equinoctial  point.  This  tallies  with  the  present  practice 
of  most  almanac-makers. 

The  months  would  thus  commence  at  the  moments 
when  the  tropical  longitude  of  the  sun  attains  the 
following  values  : — 

Saura  Vai  sakha  commences  when  the 


Sun  has  the  longitude  of 

23° 

15' 

0' 

Jyestba 

n 

n 

53 

15^ 

0 

” 

Asadha 

n 

83 

15 

0 

V 

Sravana 

* 

r> 

113 

15 

0 

rt 

Bhadrapada 

w 

tt 

143 

15 

0 

» 

Asvina 

r> 

n 

173 

15 

0 

n 

Kartika 

ft 

ft 

203 

15 

0 

» 

Margaslrsa 

W 

ft 

233 

15 

0 

r> 

Pausa 

» 

ft 

263 

15 

0 

n 

Magha 

n 

« 

293 

15 

0 

Phalguna 

w 

n 

323 

15 

0 

Caitra 

r> 

n 

353 

15 

0 

This  recommendation  is  to  be  regarded  only  as  a 
measure  of  compromise,  so  that  we  avoid  a  violent 
break  with  the  established  custom.  But  it  does  not 
make  our  present  seasons  in  the  various  months  as 
they  were  in  the  days  of  VarShamihira  or  Kalidasa. 
It  is  hoped  that  at  not  a  distant  date,  further  reforms 
for  locating  the  lunar  and  solar  festivals  in  the  seasons 
in  which  they  were  originally  observed  will  be 
adopted. 


(6)  As  usual  the  lunar  months  for  religious  pur¬ 
poses  would  commence  from  the  moment  of  new-moon 
and  would  be  named  after  the  saura  mfisa  in  which 
the  new-moon  falls.  If  there  be  two  new-moons 
during  the  period  of  a  saura  mdsa.  the  lunar 
month  beginning  from  the  first  new-moon  is  the 
adhika  or  mala  and  the  lunar  month  beginning  from 
the  moment  of  the  second  new-moon  is  the  suddha 
or  nija,  as  usual. 

(7)  The  moments  of  moon's  exit  from  a  nak$atra 
division  of  13°  20'  each  or  sun’s  entry  into  it,  would 
be  calculated  with  a  variable  ayanatnsa  i.e.,  on  the 
supposition  that  they  are  fixed  with  respect  to  the 
stars.  The  value  of  this  ayanafn£a  would  amount  to 
23°  15'  0"  on  21st  March,  1956.  Thereafter  it  would 
gradually  increase  with  the  usual  annual  rate,  the 
mean  value  of  which  is  about  50"-27. 

These  arrangements  would  ensure  that  the  religious 
festivals,  and  observances  determined  by  the  sun  (such 
as  the  Mahavi$uva  safnkranti,  Uttardyana  safnkranti, 
Daksityayana  satnkrdnti)  would  follow  astronomically 
correct  seasons,  but  those  determined  by  the  lunar 
calendar  would  continue  to  be  observed  in  times 
conforming  to  the  present  practice,  and  the  correction 
we  have  introduced  in  the  length  of  the  year  would 
prevent  their  further  shift  in  relation  to  the  seasons. 

The  dates  of  festivals  have  already  shifted  by  23 
days  from  the  seasons  in  which  they  were  observed 
about  1400  years  ago  as  a  result  of  our  almanac-makers 
having  ignored  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes. 
Although  it  may  seem  desirable  that  the  entire  amount 
of  shifting  should  be  wiped  out  at  a  time,  we  consider 
it  expedient  to  maintain  this  as  a  constant  difference 
and  stop  its  further  increase.  As  a  result,  there  would 
at  present  be  no  deviation  from  the  prevailing  custom 
in  the  observance  of  the  religious  festivals. 

In  the  calculation  of  nak^atras,  however,  we  have 
adopted  a  variable  ayanafnta ,  so  that  at  the  time  of  a 
particular  nahqatra  the  moon  may  be  seen  in  the  sky 
near  the  star  or  star-group  of  that  name.  This  practice 
is  being  followed  in  our  country  from  the  Vedic  times 
and  is  perfectly  scientific. 

(8)  The  day  should  be  reckoned  from  midnight  to 
midnight  of  the  central  station  (82*°  E.  Long,  and 
23°  11'  North  Latitude)  for  civil  purposes,  but  for 
religious  purposes  the  local  sunrise  system  may  be 
followed. 

(9)  For  the  purpose  of  all  calculations,  the  longi¬ 
tudes  of  the  sun  and  the  moon  should  be  obtained  by 
applying  the  most  up  to  date  and  complete  equations 
of  their  motions,  so  that  they  may  tally  with  their 
observed  values. 


8 


REPORT  OP  THE  CALENDAR  REPORM  COMMITTEE 


FURTHER  RECOMMENDATIONS 

(10)  Steps  should  be  taken  to  compile  an  “Indian 
Ephemeris  and  Nautical  Almanac”  by  the  Government 
of  India,  showing  in  advance,  the  positions  of  the  sun, 
the  moon,  planets  and  other  heavenly  bodies.  The 
Indian  calendar — both  civil  and  religious — prepared 
according  to  the  above  recommendations  should  be 
included  in  that  publication  every  year. 

A  permanent  Standing  Committee  to  be  called  the 
Indian  Ephemeris  and  Nautical  Almanac  Committee 
may  be  constituted  for  this  purpose  and  attached 
to  a  scientific  department  of  the  Government  of 
India. 

(11)  Steps  should  be  taken  to  establish  a  Natio¬ 
nal  Astronomical  Observatory  at  a  suitable  place, 
provided  with  modern  equipment,  apparatus  and 
time-service. 

We  hope  that  the  Government  of  India  would 
make  early  arrangements  for  implementation  of  our 
recommendations.  For  this  purpose  the  date  21st 
March,  1956  A.D.,  which  is  Caitra  1,  1878  Saka  seems 


to  be  the  most  suitable  time  for  introduction  of  the 
reformed  calendar  throughout  India. 

M.  N.  Saha 

J.  S.  Karandikar 

A.  C.  Banerji 

K.  L.  Daftari  * 

Gorakh  Prasad 

R.  V.  Vaidya 

N.  C.  Lahiri 

New  Delhi, 

The  13th  Sept.  1954. 

Dissenting  note  to  the  report  of  the  Committee  by 
Dr.  K.  L.  Daftari. 

I  agree  with  the  final  report  of  the  Committee 
dissenting  only  on  the  following  point.  I  hold  that 
the  fixed  nakqatras ,  though  regarded  as  enjoined  by 
the  dharmaiastras  should  not  be  taken  into  considera¬ 
tion  in  fixing  days  of  the  religious  functions,  or  the 
dharmasastras  be  regarded  as  enjoining  the  moving 
nakqatras  starting  from  a  point  23°  15'  ahead  of  the 
equinoctial  point.  I  have  given  my  reasons  previously 
in  my  letters  to  the  Chairman  of  the  Committee, 
(a  summary  of  which  will  be  found  as  Anne$ure  IV). 

Mahal,  Nagpur  \  „  T  „Am.A„T 

The  10th  December ,  1954  j  l)AFTARI. 


*  Subject  to  the  appended  note 


ANNEXURE I 


PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE  FIRST  MEETING  OF  THE 
CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


The  first  meeting  of  the  Indian  Calendar  Reform 
Committee,  C.S.I.R.,  was  held  at  10  A.M.  on  Saturday, 
the  21st  February,  1953,  in,  the  C.S.I.R.  Secretariat 
Buildings,  Old  Mill  Road,  New  Delhi.  The  meeting 
continued  also  on  the  23rd  February,  1953. 

The  following  were  present  : — 

Prof.  M.  N.  Saha,  Chairman 

Dr.  K.  L.  Daftari,  Member 

Dr.  Gorakh  Prasad, 

Shri  J.  S.  Karandikar,  „ 

Shri  N.  C.  Lahiri, 

Prof.  R.  V.  Vaidya,  „ 

Shri  A.  Ghosh,  By  invitation 

Dr.  P.  K.  Kichlu, 

Dr.  Lai  C.  Verman,  „ 

Shri  S.  Basu, 

Shri  K.  G.  Krishnamurthi,  As  fit.  Secy.,  C.S.I.R. 

2.  The  Hon’ble  Shri  K.  D.  Malaviya,  Deputy 
Minister,  Natural  Resources  &  Scientific  Research, 
inaugurated  the  proceedings. 

3.  The  Prime  Minister,  who  could  not  be 
personally  present,  sent  the  following  message  : — 

“I  am  glad  that  the  Calendar  Reform  Committee  has 
started  its  labours.  The  Government  of  India  has  entrusted 
to  it  the  work  of  examining  the  different  calendars  followed 
in  this  country  and  to  submit  proposals  to  the  Government 
for  an  accurate  and  uniform  calendar  based  on  a  scientific 
study  for  the  whole  of  India.  I  am  told  that  we  have  at 
present  thirty  different  calendars,  differing  from  each  other 
in  various  ways,  including  the  methods  of  time  reckoning. 
These  calendars  are  the  natural  result  of  our  past  ‘‘political 
and  cultural  history  and  partly  represent  past  political 
divisions  in  the  country.  Now  that  we  have  attained 
independence,  it  is  obviously  desirable  that  there  should  be 
a  certain  uniformity  in  the  calendar  for  our  civic,  social 
and  other  purposes  and  that  this  should  be  based  on  a 
scientific  approach  to  this  problem. 

It  is  true  that  for  Governmental  and  many  other  public 
purposes  we  follow  the  Gregorian  calendar,  which  is  used 
in  the  greater  part  of  the  world.  The  mere  fact  that  it  is 
largely  used,  makes  it  important.  It  has  many  virtues, 
but  even  this  has  certain  defects  which  make  it  unsatisfactory 
for  universal  use. 

It  is  always  difficult  to  change  a  calendar  to  which 
people  are  used,  because  it  affects  social  practices.  But 
the  attempt  has  to  be  made  even  though  it  may  not  be  as 
complete  as  desired.  In  any  event,  the  present  confusion 
in  our  own  calendars  in  India  ought  to  be  removed. 

I  hope  that  our  scientists  will  give  a  lead  in  this 
matter.” 


4.  Shri  K.  D.  Malaviya,  Deputy  Minister,  Natural 
Resources  and  Scientific  Research,  Government  of 
India,  inaugurated  the  first  meeting  of  the  Calendar 
Reform  Committee.  Shri  Malaviya  said  : — 

“It  is  my  very  pleasant  duty  to  extend  to  the  Members 
of  the  Calendar  Reform  Committee  a  hearty  welcome  on 
behalf  of  the  Government  of  India. 

You  are  meeting  here  this  morning  not  for  any  academic 
discussion  on  a  subject  of  scientific  interest,  but  for  giving 
a  practical  lead  to  the  country  on  a  very  important  task, 
that  is,  of  bringing  about  a  uniformity  in  the  Indian 
Calendar.  You  know  how  fundamentally  important  is  the 
concept  of  calendar  for  our  civilized  life,  for  without  a 
calendar  no  country  can  get  on  with  its  day-to-day  work. 

The  concept  of  month  and  year  starts  from  accepting 
day  as  the  unit.  I  learn  that  the  Indian  astronomers  of 
the  Siddhantic  period,  400  A.D.  to  1200  A.D.,  were  the  first 
to  invent  the  idea  of  Ahargay,a  or  heap  of  days  for  time 
reckonings.  This  device  was  introduced  into  European 
astronomy  in  1582  A.D.  by  Joseph  Scaliger.  At  the  same 
time  it  is  said  by  the  modern  astronomers  that  a  critical 
review  of  the  Vedahga  Jyoti$a  calendar  shows  that  purely 
Indian  systems  of  time  reckoning  up  to  the  early  centuries 
of  the  Christian  era  were  very  crude  compared  to  the 
contemporary  Graeco-Chaldean  time  reckonings  of  the 
Near  East. 

It  is  rather  strange  to  find  that  while  most  of 
Christendom,  in  spite  of  diversity  of  race  and  country, 
follows  one  single  calendar  which  has  become  the  world 
calendar,  while  all  the  Islamic  countries  follow  also  a  single 
calendar,  the  different  States  and  provinces  of  India  have 
followed  and  are  following  not  less  than  30  different 
calendars  differing  in  the  era  beginning,  the  initial  date  of 
the  year,  and  to  some  extent  in  the  methods  of  calculation. 
Though  these  calendars  are  used  for  social  purposes,  and 
for  fixing  up  the  religious  holidays,  their  very  diversity 
causes  a  great  deal  of  inconvenience  to  the  public  and  the 
State.  The  same  holiday  may  be  observed  in  different 
parts  of  the  country  and  even  in  the  same  locality  at 
intervals  of  one  day  according  to  the  method  of  calculations. 
In  some  cases,  as  for  example,  in  the  case  of  the 
Car  Festival  of  Puri,  the  days  in  the  Bengal  and 
Orissa  calendars  have  sometimes  differed  by  as  much  as  a 
month.  Why  is  it  so  ?  I  understand  that  calendars  were 
put  on  a  scientific  basis  about  1,500  years  ago  ;  the  rules 
laid  down  by  our  astronomers  were  based  on  scientific 
knowledge  as  then  known  and  they  always  took  the  precau¬ 
tion  of  laying  down  the  rule  for  the  coming  generations  that 
they  should  always  correct  their  calculations  by  means  of 


C.R.-2 


10 


REPORT  OP  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


exact  observations  of  the  sun,  the  moon  and  other  heavenly 
bodies,  which  serve  as  time-keepers. 

Up  to  1200  A.D.,  before  India  passed  under  foreign 
invaders,  our  astronomers  at  Ujjain  and  other  centres, 
always  took  the  trouble  of  correcting  their  calculations 
from  direct  observations  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  But, 
after  1200  A.D.,  the  indigenous  centres  of  astronomical 
study  were  all  broken  up,  and  the  new  rulers  did  not  take  the 
trouble  of  setting  up  fresh  centres  till  towards  the  end  of  the 
Moghul  rule,  when  Maharja  Jai  Singh  of  Amber  established 
five  observatories  at  Ujjain,  Jaipur  and  other  centres  for 
astronomical  studies  after  the  pattern  of  the  famous  obser¬ 
vatory  of  Ulugh  Begh  at  Samarkand.  Our  calendar-makers, 
being  for  long  left  to  their  own  resources,  and  having  no 
astronomical  observatories  had  to  fall  back  for  calculations  on 
rules  which  were  insufficient  and  incorrect  and  which  vitiated 
all  the  results.  Therefore,  confusion  crept  in  the  calendars, 
and  they  have  become  diversified  according  to  local  usage  and 
customs.  This  condition  is  representative  of  800  years 
of  suppression,  and  is  symbolic  of  the  history  of  India. 

Now  that  we  are  an  independent  nation  and  are  making 
all  efforts  to  bring  about  integration  in  our  national  life,  it  is 
obvious  that  an  important  item  like  the  calendar  cannot  be 
left  in  the  present  confused  state.  We  use  for  civil  and 
administrative  purposes  the  Gregorian  Calendar  which  has 
been  imposed  by  the  British  Rulers.  This  calendar  is  not 
their  invention  but  like  the  Roman  script,  it  was  imposed  on 
them  by  their  Roman  civilisers  who  got  it  partly  from 
Egypt.  On  account  of  the  dominance  of  the  Christian 
powers  during  the  last  two  centuries,  it  has  become  the 
World  Calendar.  But  on  principle  it  is  a  very  inconvenient 
and  unscientific  calendar  compared  to  ours,  and  needs 
reform. 

There  is  a  proposal  before  the  U.N.O.  by  tho  World 
Calendar  Association  for  the  revision  of  the  Gregorian 
calendar.  One  of  the  tasks  of  the  present  Committee 
would  be  to  make  suggestions  to  this  world-body  for  the 
evolution  of  a  world  calendar  which  will  be  scientific  and 
can  command  the  consent  of  all  nations.  Our  Moham¬ 
medan  fellow  citizens  will  continue  to  use  the  Hedjira 
calendar  for  fixing  their  religious  holidays  and  we  leave 
them  there.  The  labours  of  the  present  Calendar  Committee 
is  to  make  a  scientific  study  of  all  the  calendars  of  indigenous 
origin,  and  make  suggestions  for  a  unified  calendar  for  the 
guidance  of  administration,  for  social  purposes,  and  as  far  as 
practicable,  for  fixing  up  the  religious  holidays  for  India,  I 
am  assured  by  my  astronomical  friends  assembled  here  that 
this  is  quite  possible.  We  shall  be  looking  forward  to  your 
evolving  a  formula  which  would  be  acceptable  to  the  different 
people  and  States  of  India,  and  the  Government  of  India  will 
give  serious  considerations  to  the  adoption  of  your  proposals. 
I  need  hardly  add  that  this  should  be  based  on  science, 
should  take  due  consideration  of  the  customs  and  religious 
festivals  in  different  parts  of  the  country  and  at  the  same 
time  would  be  a  calendar  which  the  different  communities 
and  States  can  adopt. 


While  making  these  suggestions  before  you  I  am  aware 
of  the  difficulties.  Calendar  reform  can  be  suggested  by 
scientists,  but  it  can  be  carried  into  practice  only  by  those 
who  have  religious  or  political  authority.  The  ancient 
Roman  calendar  could  be  reformed  only  by  a  dictator  like 
Julius  Caesar,  and  later  on  by  the  religious  dictator  of 
Christendom,  Pope  Gregory  XIII,  and  the  ancient  luni-solar 
calondar  only  by  the  authority  of  the  Prophet.  But  we  are 
now  under  a  democracy.  Whatever  proposals  you  may  make 
would  have  to  be  submitted  to  the  public  for  their  opinion, 
and  I  am  quite  sure  that  our  public  would  not  resent  any 
innovation  simply  because  it  is  a  new  thing,  just  as  they 
do  not  reject  electricity  or  new  machines.  I  hope  the  public 
response  would  be  encouraging  and  the  Government  would 
find  it  possible  to  give  serious  consideration  to  your 
proposals.” 

5.  Prof.  M.  N.  Saha,  the  Chairman,  on  behalf  of 
the  members  of  the  Committee,  expressed  grateful 
thanks  to  the  Prime  Minister  for  his  kind  message. 
The  Committee  regretted  that  the  Prime  Minister 
could  not  personally  inaugurate  the  deliberations  of 
the  Committee.  Prof.  Saha,  however,  assured  the 
Committee  that  the  Prime  Minister  had  his  heart 
and  soul  in  the  matter,  and  that  he  wanted  the 
Committee  to  get  on  with  its  work  and  evolve 
scientific  proposals  for  preparation  of  a  uniform 
calendar  for  the  whole  of  India  and  for  the  benefit  of 
the  country. 

6.  The  Chairman  on  behalf  of  the  Committee, 
gratefully  thanked  the  Deputy  Minister  for  having 
graced  the  occasion  by  his  presence  and  having 
inaugurated  the  work  of  the  Committee.  The  Deputy 
Minister  had  laid  down  the  lines  on  which  the 
Committee  may  proceed.  With  the  encouragement 
of  the  Government,  the  Committee  hoped  to  be  able 
to  accomplish  the  desired  objective,  for  without  State 
support  the  discussions  would  be  dead  letter. 

7.  The  Chairman  pointed  out  that  in  India  there 
were  30  or  more  different  calendars.  In  Banaras  alone 
they  had  four  calendars  and  it  was  quite  common  that 
important  Hindu  festivals  like  Qanesa  Catvnihl  and 
Sarasvati  Puja  were  celebrated  on  different  days  in 
different  parts  of  the  country  or  even  at  the  same  city 
as  happened  this  year  at  Calcutta.  The  Committee 
should  aim  at  placing  before  the  Government  proposals 
for  a  uniform  scientific  calendar  which  wQuld  be 
acceptable  to  all.  The  task  was  not  an  easy  matter. 

8.  Tracing  out  the  history  of  the  movement  for 
calendar  reform,  the  Chairman  said  that  the  idea  was 
not  a  new  one.  The  Indian  luni-solar  calendar  up  to 
400  A.D.  was  very  crude,  but  great  astronomers  of 
India  after  400  A.D.  in  Pataliputra,  Bhilmal  in 
Rajasthan  and  in  Ujjain  particularly  had  made  very 
great  contributions  to  mathematical  knowledge,  to 
astronomy  and  to  other  branches  of  science.  They 


REPORT  OP  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


11 


laid  down  the  formulae  for  the  future  generations  and 
advised  them  to  get  their  calculations  verified  by 
means  of  observations  of  the  sun,  the  moon  and  the 
planets,  which  are  our  time-makers. 

9.  At  the  present  moment,  the  Ahargaija  or  the 
heap  of  days  is  in  usage  for  accurate  chronological 
calculations.  The  idea  was  first  evolved  by  Hindu 
astronomers  about  400  A.D.  This  was  invented  only 
in  the  16th  century  in  Europe  by  Joseph  Scaliger. 
The  Siddhantic  astronomers  started  the  year  from  the 
day  after  the  Vernal  Equinox  but  the  older  tradition 
was,  as  many  Indian  savants  had  pointed  out,  to  begin 
the  calendar  from  Winter  Solstice. 

10.  Solar  months  which  were  invented  about  these 
times  had  not  proved  very  convenient  for  use. 
The  month-lengths  varied  from  29  to  32.  The  greatest 
difficulty  has  been  caused  by  the  use  of  the  sidereal 
year  and  not  the  year  of  seasons,  as  the  Hindu  savants 
of  those  times  either  were  unaware  of  the  existence  of 
the  phenomenon  of  precession  of  equinoxes,  or  thought 
it  was  not  unidirectional.  The  mistake  was  found  by 
Munjala  and  Srlpari  in  the  10th  and  11th  centuries,  when 
the  Vernal  Equinox  had  receded  by  seven  to  eight  days, 
and  they  tried  to  persuade  the  astronomers  to  take  to 
sayana  reckoning  but  the  attempt  was  unsuccessful . 
The  situation  now  is  that  the  Vernal  Equinox  falls  on 
21st  March  but  our  year  beginning  which  ought  to  fall 
on  the  following  day,  falls,  actually  on  13th  or  14th 
April.  Thus  a  mistake  of  23  days  had  occurred  in  our 
calculation  of  seasons,  or  year-beginning. 

11.  The  Chairman  pointed  out  that  it  was  for  the 
Committee  to  discuss  and  decide  whether  the  year  was 
to  be  brought  back  by  23  days  or  to  leave  the  mistake 
as  it  was  and  to  retain  a  permanent  constant-error. 
He  also  pointed  out  that  such  a  mistake  had  occurred 
in  Europe  and  corrections  had  to  be  introduced.  The 
Gregorian  year  in  1582  was  found  to  have  an  error  of 
10  days.  Pope  Gregory  XIII  advised  that  the  5th 
October  should  be  called  the  15th  October.  This  was 
adopted  by  the  Catholics.  Though  the  Protestant 
countries  at  first  did  not  accept  this  move,  simply 
because  it  came  from  the  Pope,  but  170  years  later 
England  had  to  accept  the  correction  by  legislation. 
Russia  accepted  the  Gregorian  calendar  only  after 
the  Bolshevik  revolution. 

12.  In  Incua,  the  idea  of  Indian  Calendar  reform 
originated  from  MahSrSshtra.  Lokamanya  Shri  Bal 
Gangadhar  Tilak  well-known  as  a  great  political 
figure  of  the  last  generation  was,  as  is  well-known,  a 
great  savant  and  antiquarian  and  initiated  calendar 
reform  in  MahSrSshtra.  He  started  a  new  reformed 
calendar  which  is  still  being  published  at  Poona. 


13.  The  great  pioneer  of  calendar-studies  was 
Sankara  Balakrishna  Dixit,  whose  history  of  Bharatiya 
Jyoti$a-&astra  is  a  standard  authoritative  work,  but 
his  work  is  in  MSrSthi  and  unaccessible  to  majority  of 
India.  The  Chairman  expressed  the  hope  that  it  should 
be  translated  into  English  for  the  use  of  all.* 

14.  In  Bengal,  Madhab  Chandra  Chattopadhaya 
had  been  publishing  the  Visuddha  Siddh&nia  Paftjika 
since  1890,  in  which  all  calculations  were  made 
according  to  modern  accepted  formulae.  Shri  Nirmal 
Chandra  Lahiri,  a  member  of  the  Committee,  has  been 
continuing  the  work. 

15.  The  problem  of  Indian  Calendar  Reform  was 
also  seriously  examined  at  Banaras,  the  ancient  seat 
of  Indian  culture  and  religion  by  the  late  Pandit 
Madan  Mohan  Malaviya,  Shri  Sampurnanand  and 
others  and  the  need  for  rectification  of  the  present 
position  was  impressed  upon. 

16.  Thus,  the  idea  of  calendar  reform  had  been 
going  on  for  a  long  time  in  this  country  on  a  personal 
level.  But  as  it  affected  all  classes  of  people,  effective 
reform  can  be  carried  out  only  on  State  level.  But  all 
were  agreed  that  there  should  be  a  uniform  national 
calendar  for  the  whole  of  India. 

17.  All  our  religious  festivals  are  determined 
according  to  the  lunar  calendar  which  is  pegged  on  to 
the  present  unsatisfactory  solar  calendar.  Hence  the 
task  before  the  Committee  is  to  devise  a  satisfactory 
solar  calendar  first  and  peg  on  to  it  a  lunar  calendar. 

18.  The  Chairman  pointed  out  that  there  was  a 
good  deal  of  dissatisfaction  even  with  the  Gregorian 
calendar,  though  it  has  attained  the  status  of  a  world 
calendar.  One  of  the  main  drawbacks  of  this  calendar 
is  that  the  ending  of  the  year  does  not  correspond 
with  the  winter  solstice  day.  There  are  several 
proposals  for  reforming  the  Gregorian  calendar. 
According  to  one  proposal,  every  month  was  to  be  of 
4  weeks,  and  therefore  of  28  days  and  thirteen  months 
would  make  a  year  of  364  days.  One  day,  the  year-end 
day,  was  to  be  without  any  name  and  named  simply 
the  year-end  day.  In  leap  years,  there  was  to  be  an 
additional  year-middle  day,  without  any  weekday 
name.  Every  month  was  to  begin  on  3  Sunday. 
According  to  the  other  proposal  the  year  was  to  consist 
of  4  quarters,  each  of  91  days.  Each  quarter  was  to  be 
divided  into  three  months  of  31,  30,  30  days.  The 
year-end  day,  and  the  year-middle  day  in  leap  years 
were  to  be  the  same  as  before. 


*  The  Council  of  (scientific  and  Industrial  Research  has  since 
made  arrangements  for  having  the  book  translated  into  English  and 
Prof.  R.  V.  Vaidya,  n  Ihember  of  the  Committee  has  been  entrusted 
with  the  work. 


12 


REPORT  OP  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


19.  The  World  Calendar  Association  of  New 
York,  U.S.A.,  had  a  proposal  before  the  United  Nations 
Organization  to  evolve  a  uniform  calendar  for  the 
whole  world.  Sir  Harold  Spencer  Jones,  the  Astro¬ 
nomer-Royal  of  U.K.  and  other  eminent  astronomers 
had  expressed  their  support  of  the  proposals  of  W.C.A.  . 
They  wanted  to  effect  this  change  from  1956.  This 
proposal,  if  accepted,  would  produce  great  convenience 
and  simplicity  but  succession  of  day  reckoning  by 
the  cycle  of  the  seven  day  week  will  have  to  be 
given  up. 

20.  The  Committee  had  to  discuss  all  these  matters, 
and  its  function  was  to  submit  proposals  to  the  Govern¬ 
ment  of  India  and  devise  ways  and  means  of  achieving 
the  desired  scientific  calendar.  The  Chairman  said  that 
the  Committee  could  count  upon  the  sympathy  of  the 
Hon’ble  the  Prime  Minister  and  the  Deputy  Minister 
and  of  the  Government  of  India.  The  proposals  to  be 
discussed  are  : — 

(a)  Whether  a  number  of  astronomical  com¬ 
puters  would  have  to  be  appointed  for 
compiling  an  All-India  Calendar  for  five 
years  in  advance  on  the  lines  which  will  be 
suggested  by  the  Committee. 

(b)  Whether  steps  should  be  taken  to  compile 
an  Indian  Ephemeris  for  the  use  of  the 
calendar-makers,  the  Navy  and  the  Air 
Force. 

(c)  Establishment  of  a  Central  Astronomical 
Observatory  by  the  Government  equipped 
with  modern  instruments  and  apparatus. 

21.  The  Chairman  said  that  modern  apparatus  like 
the  ammonia  clock,  the  quartz  clock  should  be 
installed  in  the  observatory  for  the  betterment  of  the 
time-service  and  for  geophysical  studies. 

22.  The  Chairman  said  that  geophysical  studies 
with  the  aid  of  accurate  clocks  was  of  very  great 
fundamental  importance.  All  along  scientists  had 
studied  only  the  surface  of  the  earth.  But  now  the 
study  of  the  interior  of  the  earth  has  attained  great 
significance  and  with  the  aid  of  accurate  clocks,  it 
has  been  found  that  the'  period  of  rotation  of  the 
earth  undergoes  sudden  variations  which  may  be  due 
to  something  going  on  inside  the  earth. 

23.  The  Chairman  emphasized  that  a  reformed 
calendar  and  an  Indian  Ephemeris  will  be  of  advantage 
not  only  for  civil,  social  and  national  life  but  will  also 
be  of  great  use  for  the  army,  the  navy  and  the  air  force. 
He  thanked  the  Hon'ble  Deputy  Minister  on  behalf 
of  the  Committee.  (At  this  stage  the  Deputy  Minister 
left  the  meeting.) 

*  .  The  proposal  of  World  Calendar  Reform  sponsored  by  the 
Ho^ernment  of  India,  is  now  under  the  active  consideration  of  the 
ECOSOC  of  the  United  Nations. 


24.  The  Chairman  informed  the  Committee  that 
he  had  received  a  number  of  good  wishes  for  the 
deliberations  of  the  Committee  from  not  only  India 
but  also  from  several  European  countries  as  well  as 
from  Brazil,  Canada,  etc.  The  President  of  the  WO.A. 
Miss  Achelis,  had  also  sent  her  goodwill  message. 

25.  The  general  question  as  to  whether  or  not 
Government  of  India  should  undertake  reform  of  the 
various  Hindu  calendars  in  India  and  have  one 
uniform  calendar  for  the  whole  of  India  was  discussed. 

Dr.  Gorakh  Prasad  said  that  it  will  be  in  the  fitness 
of  things  for  the  Government  to  initiate  the  reform 
and  pointed  out  that  only  minimum  necessary  changes 
in  the  prevailing  custom  should  be  effected  to  avoid 
public  resentment  and  opposition.  He  emphasized  this 
point.  He  also  pointed  out  that  in  the  past  there  had 
been  hero  worship  and  gwM-worship  and  due  to 
personal  animosity  and  financial  considerations  several 
anomalies  have  crept  in.  Even  today  paflcaiiga  making 
was  a  financial  proposition.  Astrology  flourished  on 
the  principle  “Remember  it  if  it  fits  and  forget  it  if 
it  misses." 

Shri  Lahiri  said  that  proposals  concerning  religious 
festivals  should  be  got  ratified  by  eminent  Pandits. 

Prof.  Vaidya  said  that  as  we  have  got  a  democracy. 
Government  of  the  people  and  by  the  people, 
Government  should  undertake  the  reform. 

Dr.  Daftari  pointed  out,  however,  that  the 
Committee  had  been  definitely  assigned  the  task  of 
submitting  proposals  to  the  Government  for  a  reform 
in  the  calendar  and  as  such  the  general  question 
whether  the  Government  should  undertake  it  or  not 
did  not  arise.  He  laid  emphasis  on  the  fact  that  our 
present  calendars  were  absurd  in  the  sense  that  the 
seasons  were  moving  backward  and  wanted  that  this 
should  be  stopped. 

The  Committee  resolved  that  a  National  Solar 
Calendar  for  civil  purposes  should  be  prepared  by 
the  Committee  under  the  auspices  of  the  Central 
Government  and  that  the  lunar  paficaiiga  should  be 
pegged  on  to  this  calendar. 

26.  Whether  India  should  support  the  proposals 
of  the  W.C.A.  was  discussed. 

.  Dr.  Gorakh  Prasad  was  not  in  favour.  Shri 
Karandikar  opined  that  India  should  evolve  a  National 
Calendar  and  the  whole  world  may  follow  it. 

Discussion  on  this  point  was  postponed  ;  the 
Committee  did  not  favour  the  Gregorian  calendar. 

27.  Sayana  or  Nirayaoa  Reckoning. 

The  Chairmarr  pointed  out  that  the  sayana  year 
was  365‘2422  days  and  the  Gregorian  year  was 


REPORT  OP  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


13 


365'2425  days.  Thus  the  error  in  adopting  the 
Gregorian  leap  year  system  would  be  only  1  day  in 
3300  years.  He  favoured  the  adoption  of  the  sayana 
reckoning. 

The  Committee  agreed  with  the  Chairman  and 
resolved  to  adopt  the  sayana  reckoning  for  the 
reformed  calendar. 

28.  Beginning  of  the  Year. 

The  Chairman  pointed  out  that  there  was  an  error 
of  23  days  in  the  present  calendars  and  desired  to  know 
whether  the  Committee  would  favour  shifting  of  the 
year  for  the  'reformed  calendar  by  23  days  to  put 
an  end  to  this  mistake. 

Dr.  Gorakh  Prasad  pointed  out  that  a  suggestion 
to  shift  the  year  back  by  23  days  would  meet  with 
very  great  opposition  from  the  public  who  will 
certainly  resent  such  a  move.  He  was  not  in  favour 
of  the  shift. 

Dr.  Daftari  opined  that  this  error  of  23  days  can  be 
left  over  as  it  was  and  allowed  to  remain  as  a 
permanent  constant  error.  The  increase  of  the  error 
should  be  stopped. 

Shri  Karandikar  said  that  the  Government  should 
have  a  solar  year  beginning  from  Vernal  Equinox. 
He  desired  the  length  of  the  year  to  be  tropical.  He 
suggested  that  after  shifting  back  by  23  days  the 
V.  E.  day,  viz.,  21st  March  may  be  the  beginning  of 
the  solar  year,  but  the  paVlcangas  may  start  the  lunar 
year  from  Caitra  Sukladi. 

29.  Vernal  Equinox  &  Winter  Solstice. 

The  Chairman  said  that  V.E.  was  on  21st  March 
and  that  W.S.  was  on  22nd  December.  The  problem 
was  whether  the  Committee  favoured  V.E.  or  W.S.  as 
the  beginning  of  the  solar  year. 

Dr.  Daftari  said  that  W.S.  is  good  for  the  civil 
calendar.  In  any  case,  the  seven-day  week  should 
not  be  touched  which  was  agreed  to  by  the  Committee. 
Dr.  Gorakh  Prasad,  Prof.  Vaidya  and  Shri  Lahiri 
favoured  the  V.E.  as  the  commencement  for  the 
solar  year. 

The  following  resolution  was  adopted  : — 

The  Committee  recommends  to  the  Government 
of  India  that  a  scientific  Civil  Solar  Calendar  to  be 
henceforth  called  the  National  Calendar  for  purposes 
of  dating  should  have  its  first  day  after  the  Vernal 
Equinox  day,  viz.,  on  the  22nd  March,  but  for  religious 
purposes  in  places  where  solar  calendar  is  used,  13th  or 
14th  April  may  be  the  first  day  of  the  year  for  some 
time  to  come  (as  a  concession  to  the  prevailing  custom). 


All  the  members  of  the  Committee  agreed  to  the 
resolution  except  Dr.  Gorakh  Prasad  who  recorded 
his  disagreement  with  the  resolution. 

Dr.  Gorakh  Prasad  was  of  the  opinion  that  for 
civil  purposes  also  the  year  should  begin  on  the  same 
day  as  for  religious  purposes.  He  thought  that  the 
existence  of  two  Indian  solar  years  would  create 
confusion  instead  of  producing  any  beneficial  effects. 

30.  Length  of  the  Months. 

Shri  Karandikar’s  view  was  that  the  time  taken 
by  the  sun  to  go  through  30®  on  the  zodiac  should  be 
the  length  of  the  month.  The  Chairman  pointed  out 
that  the  lengths  of  months  would  vary  from  29  to  32, 
and  would  cause  much  inconvenience. 

The  Committee  agreed  to  have  5  solar  months  of 
31  days  and  7  months  of  30  days  in  an  ordinary  year 
and  in  a  leap  year  6  solar  months  of  31  days  and  six 
months  of  30  days. 

31.  Era. 

The  Chairman  pointed  out  that  the  Vikrama  era 

was  never  used  by  astronomers  and  in  different 

States,  there  were  different  year  beginnings  for  the 

Vikrama  Safnvat  era.  For  all  calculations  the  Indian 

/ 

astronomers  have  always  used  the  Saka  era. 

Dr.  Daftari  said  that  the  Siddhantas  used  the 
Kaliyuga  era.  Sri  Karandikar  was  of  the  opinion 
that  either  Kali  or  Kalpa  era  should  be  used. 

The  Committee  resolved  that  the  current  Saka  Era 
should  be  adopted  for  the  reformed  Indian  calendar. 

32.  Reckoning  of  Day; 

Two  systems  now  prevalent  are  (a)  reckoning  the 
day  from  mid-night  to  mid-night  and  ( b )  from  sun-rise 
to  sun-rise.  The  Chairman  favoured  the  mid-night 
system  as  the  advantages  in  this  system  were  : — 

(i)  that  the  astronomers  all  over  the  world, 
including  our  ancient  astronomers  used  it  ; 

(ii)  it  was  an  international  system  ; 

(iii)  complications  due  to  latitude  did  not  come 
in  this  system. 

Dr.  Daftari,  Shri  Karandikar,  Prof.  Vaidya  and 
Dr.  Gorakh  Prasad,  however,  were  in  favour  of 
reckoning  the  day  from  sun-rise  to  sun-rise  ;  even 
though  latitude  and  longitude  had  to  be  considered  in 
calculations.  Shri  Lahiri  was  in  favour  of  reckoning 
the  day  from  mid-night  to  mid-night. 


14 


REPORT  OP  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


The  Committee  resolved  that  in  the  Indian  system 
of  time  reckoning,  the  day  should  be  reckoned  from 
mid-night  to  mid-night  at  an  All-India  Central 
Station  for  dating  purposes  only,  but  for  religious 
and  other  purposes  the  day  may  begin  from  sun-rise 
of  the  Central  Station  ;  but  tables  showing  local 
sun  -  rise  for  important  stations  should  be  given. 

33.  All-India  Central  Station. 

The  Chairman  pointed  out  that  it  was  necessary 
for  international  purposes  that  Indian  time  should  be 

hrs.  ahead  of  the  Universal  Time  (Greenwich  Time). 
The  Committee  considered  the  question  of  location 
of  the  Central  Astronomical  Station. 

Prof.  Vaidya  and  Shri  Karandikar  put  up  maps 
and  atlases.  Prof.  Vaidya  proposed  Ujjain  on  tradi¬ 
tional  grounds  or  Jubbalpore  on  geographical  grounds. 
Dr.  Gorakh  Prasad  and  Shri  Karandikar  suggested 
Ujjain,  while  Shri  Lahiri  suggested  22fc°N.  Latitude. 
It  was  decided  that  a  place  (82J°E.  of  Greenwich) 
and  having  the  latitude  of  Ujjain  (viz.  23°  ll'N)  be 
recognised  as  the  Central  Station  for  India. 

34.  Lunar  Calendar. 

The  Committee  agreed  that  the  lunar  months 
should  be  new-moon  ending,  and  the  lunar  year  should 
begin  with  Caitra  &ukla-pratipat. 

35.  The  year  for  Religious  Calendar. 

Dr.  Daftari  said  that  for  the  sake  of  convenience 
the  first  point  of  the  zodiac  should  be  23°  21'  ahead 
of  the  real  Vernal  Equinox,  and  that  all  calculations 
should  be  made  on  this  basis.  Shri  Lahiri  pointed  out 
that  in  Bengal  they  had  23°  12'. 

It  was  decided  that  the  first  point  of  Mega  is  to  be 
taken  23°  15'  ahead  of  the  Vernal  Equinoctial  point, 
and  all  calculations  should  be  made  on  that  basis. 

36.  Names  of  Solar  Months. 

The  names  of  the  months  should  continue  to  be 
Caitra ,  Vaisakha,  etc.,  as  at  present ;  the  appellation 
of  solar  or  lunar  should  be  attached  to  them  as  the 
case  may  be. 

The  point  regarding  naming  of  the  months  of  the 
National  Civil  Calendar  was  postponed  for  the  next 
meeting. 

37.  Tithi. 

The  Chairman  said  that  tithi  calculations  according 
to  Indian  method  were  wrong  at  present  by  sometimes 
as  much  as  6  hours  and  said  that  the  Committee 


should  favour  a  uniform  tithi  for  the  whole  of  India. 
Shri  Karandikar  however  opposed  the  proposition  and 
pointed  out  that  the  tithi  depended  on  sunrise  and 
so  on  local  time  and  could  never  be  uniform  for  the 
whole  of  India. 

It  was  resolved  that  in  the  National  Calendar,  tithi 
should  be  given  for  the  Central  Station  and  the 
calculations  of  time  should  be  given  in  hours  and 
minutes. 

38.  Nakshatra. 

The  Chairman  preferred  an  Indian  calendar 
without  nakgatras  being  indicated.  Dr.  Daftari  however 
said  that  the  nakgatras  should  be  specified  and  that 
ASvinl  should  start  with  Mega.  It  was  resolved  that 
the  nakgatras  should  be  given  with  ASvinl  starting 
with  Mega. 

39.  Recommendations  to  the 

Government  of  India. 

Resolutions  proposed  by  the  'Chairman  and  un¬ 
animously  passed  by  the  Committee  : — 

1.  A  tentative  National  Calendar  for  the  whole 
of  India  should  be  prepared,  for  five  years 
in  advance,  showing  dates,  days,  months* 
tithis  and  nakgatras. 

(Five  years  in  advance  was  necessary  to  find 
out  the  practical  implications  and  difficulties 
which  may  be  caused  by  the  occurrence  of 
leap  years  and  intercalary  months.) 

2.  Steps  should  be  taken  to  compile  an  Indian 
Ephemeris  by  the  Government  of  India 
showing  in  advance  positions  of  the  Sun,  the 
Moon,  the  planets  and  other  important 
heavenly  bodies. 

3.  There  should  be  a  National  Observatory  at 
a  suitable  place  provided  with  modern 
equipment,  apparatus  and  time-service. 

Monday,  the  23rd  February,  1953. 

The  following  attended  : 

Prof.  M.  N.  Saha  (Chairman) 

Dr.  K.  L.  Daftari  ( Member ) 

Shri  J.  S.  Karandikar 

Shri  N.  C.  Lahiri  „ 

Prof.  R.  V.  Vaidya  „ 

Shri  K.  G.  Krishnamurthi 

Assistant  Secretary ,  C.S.I.R. 

The  Committee  reviewed  the  items  covered  in 
the  meeting  held  on  Saturday. 


REPORT  OP  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


15 


2.  Some  members  of  the  Committee  suggested  that 
additional  members  should  be  taken  up  on  the 
Committee  or  co-opted.  The  Chairman  said  that, 
if  necessary,  additional  members  would  be  taken  up 
or  co-opted,  but  only  at  a  later  stage,  after  the 
proceedings  are  reported  to  the  Council  of  Scientific 
and  Industrial  Research. 

3.  Discussing  the  procedure  to  be  followed,  the 
Chairman  said  that  the  Committee  should  request  the 
Covernment  of  India  to  appoint  two  astronomers  to 
prepare  the  National  Calendar  on  the  lines  suggested 
by  the  Committee  and  give  them  the  necessary 
assistance. 

The  Chairman  is  in  correspondence  with  the 
Astronomer  Royal  of  England  regarding  t^e  compila¬ 
tion  of  the  Indian  Ephemeris. 


4.  The  Chairman  proposed  to  the  Committee  that 
Shri  Lahiri  and  Prof.  Vaidya  may  be  recommended  to 
the  Government  to  be  appointed  for  the  work  of 
compilation  of  the  National  Calendar. 

The  Committee  recommended  that  the  services 
of  Shri  Lahiri  and  Prof.  Vaidya  who  were  both 
Government  servants  be  got  on  loan  for  a  period  of 
one  year  in  the  first,  instance.  The  Committee  also 
recommended  that  two  assistants  be  appointed  to  assist 
Shri  Lahiri  and  Prof.  Vaidya  at  Calcutta  and  Ujjain 
respectively. 

The  Committee  recommended  that  suitable  budget 
provision  be  made  for  one  year  for  the  work.* 

*  The  Council  of  Scientific  and  Industrial  Research  had  made 
budget  grant  for  implementation  of  thiB  recommendation  and  staff 
of  calculators  had  been  appointed. 


ANNEXURE  II 

PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE  SECOND  MEETING 


The  second  meeting  of  the  Calendar  Reform 
Committee  was  held  on  the  8th  March,  1954  at 
10  A.M.  in  the  C.S.I.R.  Building,  New  Delhi. 

The  following  members  were  present  : — 

1.  Prof.  M.  N.  Saha,  Chairman 

2.  Dr.  Gorakh  Prasad,  Member 

3.  Shri  J.  S.  Karandikar, 

4.  Prof.  R.  V.  Vaidya,  „ 

5.  Shri  N.  C.  Lahiri,  „ 

1.  Prof.  A.  C.  Banerji  could  not  attend  due  to 
his  other  engagement  which  was  appointed  earlier. 
Dr.  Daftari  could  not  attend  due  to  illness. 

2.  Dr.  Daftari  sent  a  letter  which  was  read  by 
the  Chairman.  According  to  his  suggestion  it  was 
decided  that  Yoga  should  be  given  in  the  Experimental 
Calendar,  but  Karay/i  need  not  be  given.  Instead  of 
27  Yogas  only  Yyatipdta  and  Vaidhfti  calculated  with 
tropical  longitudes  of  the  Sun  and  the  Moon  should 
be  given. 

3.  The  following  further  resolutions  were  adopted 
after  discussion  : — 

(1)  All  festival  days  and  days  of  religious  obser¬ 
vances  in  India  should  be  shown  and  mention  should 
be  made  of  States  in  which  they  are  observed,  as  has 
been  done  in  the  calendar. 

(2)  The  system  of  starting  the  year  on  the  day 
following  Vernal  Equinox  is  confirmed. 

(3)  Caitra  should  be  the  first  month  and  the  names 
of  the  months  should  be  Caitra,  VaiSakha,  etc. 
Alternatively  the  civil  months  may  be  called  Mega, 
Vfgabha  etc.,  Mega  being  the  name  for  solar  Caitra. 


(4)  The  lengths  of  the  months  would  be  fixed 
as  follows  : 

Caitra  30  days  {31  days  in  leap  years),  VaiiS.kha-31, 
Jyaigttha-31 ,  Aga4ha-31,  &ravana-31,  Bhadra-31, 
Asvina-30,  Kartika-30 ,  Agrahdyana-30,  Pauga-30, 
Magha-30 ,  and  Phalguna-30  days. 

Leap-years  should  correspond  with  the  leap-years 
of  the  Gregorian  calendar. 

(5)  Mahaviguva  safnkranti  is  to  be  stated  in 
the  calendar  on  the  vernal  equinox  day  and  the 
Uttar  ay  apa  safnkranti  on  the  winter  solstice  day. 
Makara  safnkranti  should  be  on  the  day  when  the 
sidereal  Makara  is  passed  ( i.e .  on  14th  Jan.  as  at 
present).  Vaisakhi  is  to  be  celebrated  on  the  first  of 
VaUakha, 

(6)  Dates  of  heliacal  rising  and  setting  of  Jupiter 
and  Venus  should  be  given  in  the  calendar. 

(7)  feukla  and  Krgna  Pakgas  should  be  separately 
shown  and  tithis  should  be  numbered  from  S  1  to  15 
and  K  1  to  14  and  K  30. 

(8)  Moment  of  rising  of  the  centre  of  the  apparent 
Sun  to  be  given  after  making  correction  for  refraction. 
The  moment  of  sunset  similarly  calculated  should 
also  be  given. 

(9)  The  moment  of  Sun’s  entry  into  the  nakgatra 
divisions  should  also  be  stated  in  the  calendar. 

4.  Dr.  Gorakh  Prasad  enquired  as  to  the  amount 
of  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes  adopted  in  calcula¬ 
ting  the  nakgatras.  He  was  informed  that  the 
calculations  have  keen  made  with  a  constant  ayanafnia 
of  23°  15',  as  no  definite  directive  was  given  in  the 


16 


REPORT  OP  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


previous  meeting  for  changing  the  ayart&fnSa  year 
after  year.  He  remarked  that  this  is  unscientific  and 
opposed  to  the  actual  happenings  in  the  sky. 

5.  At  this  time  the  meeting  was  postponed  for 
lunch  till  3-0  PM  when  all  the  members  present 
again  met. 

6.  Dr.  Gorakh  Prasad  stressed  upon  the  necessity 
of  calculating  the  nak$atras  ( and  also  the  sidereal 
Me$adi  etc.  )  in  such  a  manner  that  at  the  time  of 
a  particular  nakqatra,  say  Kfttika ,  the  moon  may  be 
seen  near  the  Krttika,  group  of  stars  in  the  sky.  This 
practice  is  being  followed  since  the  Vedic  times  and 
is  perfectly  scientific  and  we  cannot  change  this  old 
system.  Shri  Karandikar  did  not  support  this  and 
stressed  upon  the  necessity  of  adopting  a  constant 
ayanafn&a.  The  Chairman  remarked  that  constant 
ayan&fnia  was  opposed  to  science.  Shri  Lahiri  and 
Prof.  Vaidya  pointed  out  that  if  any  change  is  intro¬ 
duced  in  the  ayanafnsa  at  this  stage,  the  calendar  for 
four  years  so  far  calculated  will  require  a  thorough 
revision  involving  a  great  amount  of  labour  and  time. 
It  was,  however,  agreed  that  if  the  difference  be  small 
such  as  one  or  two  minutes  of  arc,  the  labour  involved 
in  the  revision  would  not  be  much. 

7.  Dr.  Gorakh  Prasad  pointed  out  that  the 
Naksatras  and  the  sidereal  Meyfidi  should  be  calculated 
from  a  fixed  point  which  was  23°  15'  in  advance  of 
the  vernal  equinoctial  point  on  a  certain  date  ( the 
middle  of  the  period  of  5  years  for  which  thePafkSAga 
was  to  be  calculated  *.e.  on  21st  March,  1956  )  and  the 
rate  at  which  this  ayanafnsa  is  increasing  on  account 
of  precession  of  the  equinoxes  should  be  taken  into 
account. 

8.  For  the  purpose  of  examining  the  above  position 
thoroughly,  the  Chairman  asked  Prof.  Vaidya  to  prepare 
a  note  on  the  Zero-point  of  the  Hindu  celestial 
globe  according  to  the  Surya  Siddhdnia  and  other 
older  Indian  Siddhanias.  This  will  be  circulated 
and  after  taking  opinion  the  point  in  paragraph  7 
above  will  be  decided  by  the  Chairman.  Pending 
finalization  of  this  question,  the  calculations  so  far 
made  should  be  regarded  as  provisional. 

9.  The  introduction  to  the  report  of  the  Calendar 
Reform  Committee  prepared  by  the  Chairman  was 
discussed  and  the  general  outline  of  the  report 
approved. 

-10.  The  activities  of  the  C.S-I.R.  on  the  recommen¬ 
dation  of  the  Calendar  Reform  Committee  for 
publishing  an  Indian  Ephemeris  and  Nautical  Almanac 
on  behalf  of  the  Government  of  India  was  explained 
to  the  members  by  the  Chairman. 

11.  It  was  resolved  that  an  extension  for  six 
months  should  be  given  to  the  office  of  the  Calendar 


Reform  Committee  to  complete  the  outstanding 
work,  for  which  the  C.S.I.R.  may  be  moved  by  the 
Chairman. 

12.  The  suggestions  received  from  different  persons 
and  institutions  were  read  and  discussed. 


Memorandum  issued  by  the  Chairman  to  the  members 
of  the  Calendar  Reform  Committee 
on  22nd  June,  1954. 

In  the  second  meeting  of  the  Calendar  Reform 
Committee  held  at  the  C.S.I.R.  Building,  New  Delhi 
on  the  8th  March,  1954,  Dr.  Gorakh  Prasad  raised 
the  question  of  adopting  variable  ayanafnsa  for  the 
purpose  of  calculating  nak^atras  as  well  as  sidereal 
Me$Bdi.  After  discussion  it  was,  however,  decided  that 
Prof.  Vaidya  would  prepare  a  note  on  the  subject 
which  would  be  circulated  amongst  the  members,  and 
after  obtaining  their  opinion,  the  Chairman  would 
decide  the  question. 

Dr.  Gorakh  Prasad  thereafter  submitted  a  note 
containing  his  definite  proposals  in  this  respect,  which 
was  also  circulated  amongst  the  members.  He  proposed 
that  “23°  15'  be  taken  as  the  Ayanafnsa  on  the  vernal 
equinox  day  (21st  March  )  of  1956,  because  this  will 
reconcile  most  of  the  PancUngas  in  India  based  on 
modern  constants.” 

Prof.  Vaidya  prepared  his  note  and  it  was 
circulated.  Another  note  prepared  in  this  office  on 
the  same  subject  was  also  circulated.  It  was  explained 
in  these  notes  that  the  Meqadi  of  Surya  Siddhanta 
was  actually  the  V.E.  point,  and  as  the  seasons  and 
different  solar  and  lunar  months  of  the  year  are 
connected  with  Me$adi,  the  year  of  the  Indian  religious 
calendar  cannot  but  be  the  seasonal  or  tropical  year.  It 
has  also  been  shown  that  it  is  not  possible  to  arrive 
at  any  definite  conclusion  as  to  the  actual  amount  of 
ayan&fnia  at  any  epoch,  from  an  examination  of  the 
star  positions  given  by  the  Surya  Siddhdnta. 

Replies  to  the  circular  letters  have  been  received 
from  Dr.  Daftari  and  Shri  Karandikar,  who  desire  that 
we  should  stick  to  the  proposals  adopted  in  the  first 
meeting,  vix.,  should  adopt  a  constant  ayanafnsa  of 
23°  15'  for  our  religious  calendar.  I  have  consulted 
Shri  Lahiri  and  Prof.  Vaidya  also  on  this  question. 

It  appears  to  me  that  if  we  accept  Dr.  Gorakh 
Prasad’s  proposal  of  adopting  a  variable  ayandfnia  for 
the  calculation  of  nafyatra  as  well  as  MegMi,  we 
shall  lose  the  seasonal  nature  of  the  months  which  is 
against  the  Dharmaiastra ,  as  our  Meqadi  being  the 
V.E.  point  cannot  be  calculated  with  a  variable 
ayanafn&a.  We  cannot  therefore  accept  Dr.  Gorakh 


REPORT  OF  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


17 


Prasad’s  second  part  of  the  proposal  that  the  sidereal 
Me$adi  should  also  be  calculated  with  variable 
ayanafnsa.  It  should  therefore  be  calculated  with  a 
fixed  ayanafnSa  of  23°  15'  as  already  decided. 

As  regards  the  calculation  of  nak$atras ,  I  agree 
that  it  should  be  done  with  a  variable  ayandfnia, 
otherwise  the  nak$atra  divisions  will  lose  all  connec¬ 
tions  with  the  stars  or  star-groups  contained  in  those 
nak$atras.  For  this  purpose  I  agree  with  Dr.  Gorakh 
Prasad  that  the  ayanafnsa  of  23°  15'  should  relate  to 
21st  March,  1956,  the  middle  of  the  five-yearly  period. 


This  is  acceptable  without  entering  into  any 
controversy  about  any  particular  value  of  ayanafn&a< 

The  result  would  be  that  the  Me$adi  would  not 
coincide  with  any  particular  nakqcctra  division  for  all 
time.  This  has  got  support  of  our  &a$tras  behind  it, 
as  there  is  mention  of  such  receding  back  of  the  V  .E. 
point  (  our  Meg&di  )  over  the  nakqatra  divisions. 

The  five  yearly  experimental  calendar  already 
prepared  will  be  revised  where  necessary  in  the  light 
of  the  above  decision. 


ANNEXURE  III 

PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE  THIRD  MEETING 


The  third  meeting  of  the  Calendar  Reform 
Committee  was  held  on  the  13th  Sept.  1954  at 
10  A.M.  in  the  C.S.I.R.  Building,  New  Delhi. 

The  following  members  were  present  5 — 

1.  Prof.  M.  N.  Saha,  Chairman 

2.  Shri  J.  S.  Karandikar,  Member 

3.  Prof.  A.  C.  Banerji, 

4.  Dr.  Gorakh  Prasad, 

5.  Prof.  R.  V.  Vaidya, 

6.  Shri  N.  C.  Lahiri, 

Dr.  Daftari  in  letters  to  Dr.  Gorakh  Prasad^ and 
to  Shri  Karandikar  expressed  his  inability  to  attend 
due  to  reasons  of  health. 

1.  The  proceedings  of  the  last  meeting  were 
read  and  confirmed. 

2.  The  introductory  portion  of  the  report  and 
the  final  recommendations  and  also  the  experimental 
National  Calendar  prepared  for  five  years  were  read, 
and  scrutinized  by  all  the  members  and  were  approved 
after  small  corrections. 


3.  The  members  present  signed  the  final  report 
for  submission. 

4.  It  was  resolved  that  the  Government  be 
requested  to  print  Parts  A  and  B  immediately  for 
circulation  and  eliciting  public  opinion.  When  Part  C 
will  be  completed  and  approved  by  the  members  of 
the  Committee,  it  will  also  have  to  be  printed,  and 
circulated. 

5.  A  letter  from  the  Chairman  regarding  his  visit 
of  the  Nautical  Almanac  Office  at  Herstmonceux 
( England )  was  read.  It  was  resolved  that  the 
travelling  expenses  from  London  to  Herstmonceux 
and  back  incurred  should  be  borne  by  the  Calendar 
Reform  Committee. 

6.  The  members  requested  the  Chairman  to  move 
the  Government  for  making  arrangement  for  publishing 
an  ‘Indian  Ephemeris  and  Nautical  Almanac’  for 
India. 

7.  The  Chairman  then  thanked  the  members  for 
the  trouble  they  had  taken  and  the  interest  shown 
in  the  smooth  working  of  the  Committee. 


ANNEXURE  IV 


A  Summary  of  Reasons  for  the  dissenting  note  by  Dr.  K.  L.  Daftari 


The  real  problem  before  us  is  to  stop  the  moving 
back  of  the  seasons  through  the  months  Gaitra , 
Vaisakha  etc.,  in  such  a  manner  that  will  fit  in  with 
the  present  Dharmaiastra.  We  can  only  give  a  new 
interpretation  or  meaning  to  the  words  Gaitra , 
Vaisakha  etc.,  and  Aivini,  Bharayi  etc.,  used  in  the 
Dharmasastras.  From  this  stand  point  our  resolutions 
in  our  first  meeting  still  stand  unimpeached.  I  shall 
now  explain  what  I  say. 

To  stop  the  moving  back  of  the  seasons  through  the 
months  Caitra  etc.  we  must  make  the  months  move 
back  with  equal  motion.  That  means  that  the  months 
must  correspond  to  or  be  pegged  on  the  seasonal  year 
and  not  on  the  sidereal  year  as  at  present.  Therefore 
our  resolutions  to  adopt  the  seasonal  year  for  the 
paftcanga  is  quite  correct.  All  corollaries  of  this 
proposition  must  be  correct  and  must  be  accepted. 
The  corollary  is  that  as  at  the  time  of  Caitri  Puryima 
the  moon  will  riot  be  near  the  fixed  star  Citra  and 
similarly  in  Visakha  etc.,  the  places  where  the  moon 
will  be  under  such  circumstances  must  be  given  some 
other  names  and  we  should  name  them  Sayana  Citra , 
Sayana  Visakha  etc.  We  adopt  these  names  being 
convinced  that  when  the  Dharmasastras  name  Caitra, 
Vaisakha  etc.,  and  Asvini,  Bharanl  etc.,  they  really 
mean  Sayana  Caitra,  Sayana  Vaisakha  etc.  and  Sayana 
Asvini,  Sayana  Bharanl  etc.  The  works  on  Dharma¬ 
sastras  came  into  existence  before  the  precession  of 
equinoxes  was  discovered.  The  astronomical  works 
written  before  Munjala,  had  no  idea  of  the  precession 
of  equinoxes.  At  that  time  the  writers  on  Dharma¬ 
iastra  and  astronomy  thought  that  the  seasonal  year 
and  the  sidereal  year  were  the  same  and  as  they  had 
to  regulate  the  religious  functions  according  to  the 
seasons  they  must  have  meant  by  Caitra,  VaiSakha  etc., 
the  Sayana  Caitra,  Sayana  Vaisakha  and  by  ASvinl, 
Bharaifi  etc.,  the  Sayana  Asvini,  the  Sayana  Bharayi 
etc.  That  the  Dharmasastra  and  the  Vedas  regard 
only  the  seasonal  year  as  the  year,  is  clear  from  the 
statement  in  the  Satapatha  Brahrmna 

sjwtfa  i”  (The  seasons  is  the  year. 

The  year  can  stand  only  by  the  help  of  the  seasons). 
In  view  of  this  statement  it  is  clear  that  we  will  do 
real  justice  to  .  the  Dharmasastras  if  we  understand  by 
Caitra  etc.  the  Sayana' Caitra  and  by  Asvini  etc.  the 
Sayana  Asvini ,  etc.  If  we  do  not  approve  of  the 
adjective  Saya?ia  we  may  apply  the  adjective  'Gala' 
which  is  more  expressive.  We  have  to  accept  this 
interpretation  of  the  Dharmasastras  as  the  corollary 
of  our  proposition  that  we  must  accept  the  seasonal 
year  for  our  calendar. 


This  manner  of  the  calendar  reform  exactly  fits  in 
with  the  work  on  Dharmasastra.  We  have  only  to 
understand  the  words  Caitra  etc.  and  Asvini  etc.  to  be 
equivalent  to  Sayana  Caitra  etc.  and  Sayana  Asvini  etc. 
These,  the  people  will  find  given  in  our  calendar. 
Thus  the  present  works  on  Dharmakdstra  even  without 
any  change  will  continue  to  serve  our  purpose  for  all 
time  to  come.  Any  other  way  of  reforming  the 
calendar  will  require  the  changes  in  the  works  on 
Dharmasastra  themselves  and  we  have  no  power  to 
do  the  same  because  the  people  do  suppose  that 
we  have  no  qualifications  sufficient  to  change  the 
Dharmasastras  but  we  can  suggest  the  new  and 
the  rational  interpretation  of  the  Dharmasastras  as 
given  above. 

Now  I  shall  consider  the  objections  raised  by  the 
Pancafiga  Sodhana  Parijad  of  Calcutta.  The 
objections  are  stated  in  the  following  sentences.  “Our 
religious  festivals  and  observances  were  observed 
during  all  this  period  and  no  difficulty  was  experienced 
in  any  time.  We  are  confident  that  in  future  also  we 
shall  experience  no  difficulty  by  this  gradual  shifting 
of  the  V.  E.  point.  For  this  purpose  if  any  attempt  is 
made  artificially  to  stop  further  receding  back  of  the 
equinoxes,  as  appears  to  have  been  proposed  by  the 
Calendar  Reform  Committee,  it  will  no  doubt  be 
completely  opposed  to  our  sastric  tradition  as  well  as 
to  science”. 

This  discloses  complete  ignorance  of  the  history 
of  our  calendar  system.  In  the  beginning  when  our 
ancestors  found  that  the  V.  E.  had  shifted  back  they 
changed  the  beginning  of  the  year  from  one  nak$atra 
to  another  behind  it,  for  example,  they  changed  the 
beginning  of  the  year  from  Mrga  to  Rohiyi,  from  Rohiyi 
to  Kfttika,  from  Krttikd  to  Dhani$\hd,  from  Dhani$\ha  to 
Sravaya  and  from  Sravaya  again  to  Asvini.  These 
changes  required  corresponding  changes  in  the 
Dharmasastras  also.  These  were  the  times  when 
the  Dharmasastra  had  not  become  stationary  as  it 
has  become  at  present.  Our  ancestors,  therefore,  could 
make  necessary  changes  in  Dharmasastra  also.  It 
was  therefore  that  our  ancestors,  as  the  memorandum 
says,  found  no  difficulty  in  observing  the  religious 
festivals.  But  now  we  actually  find  the  difficulty 
because  Dharmasastra  has  become  stationary.  Take 
the  case  of  Vatiakha  fcuddha  Tftiya  or  Ak§aya 
Tftiya.  In  this  festival  we  have  to  offer  to  a  Brahman 
an  earthen  pot  for  cooling  drinking  water.  At  present 
we  get  very  h©t  summer  on  Ak$aya  Tftiya  and  there¬ 
fore  the  ceremony  is  the  proper  one  at  that  time.  In 


REPORT  OP  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


19: 


future  however,  we  shall  have  rainy  season  on  VaisSkha 
&uddha  Tftiya  after  about  2000  years.  Will  this 
ceremony  be  proper  at  that  time  ?  We  shall  have  to 
perform  it  at  least  on  Caitra  feuddha  TftiyS.  This 
shows  that  if  we  stick  to  the  sidereal  year  we  shall 
then  have  to  change  the  Dharma&tistra  from  time  to 
time.  Are  the  objectors  willing  to  accept  such  a 
position  ?  They  do  not  appear  to  be,  because  they 
are  staunch  followers  of  the  &astras  and  they  want  to 
follow  them  literally.  The  late  S.  B.  Dixit  has  cited 
in  his  famous  book  some  other  examples  like  that  of 
Akqaya  TrtlyS,  (see  pages  420  to  423),  and  in  fact  we 
are  very  unwilling  to  perform  our  present  functions 
in  any  season  other  than  that  in  which  we  are 
at  present  performing  them.  The  &Sstras  also  as 
shown  above  really  regard  the  round  of  the  seasons 
as  the  year.  It  is  because  our  &Sstras  regarded  the 
seasons  as  equivalent  to  the  year,  and  that  our  ancestors 
shifted  several  times,  the  beginning  of  the  year  from 
one  nak$atra  to  another,  and  they  added  intercalary 
months  from  time  to  time.  Are  we  even  now  to 
follow  this  crude  method  of  adjusting  the  year  to  the 
seasons  or  to  adopt  a  more  scientific  method  of 
gradually  changing  the  beginning  of  the  zodiac  in 
conformity  with  the  actual  movements  in  the  heaven  ? 

It  is  objected  that  the  &Sstras  do  not  require  all 
religious  functions  to  be  observed  in  the  seasonal 
months.  The  objectors  give  example  of  Jamnastami 
and  say  that  we  need  not  bother  whether  it  is  in  rainy 
season  or  not.  This  is  not  true.  We  all  suppose  that 
the  Lord  Kr§qa  was  born  in  rainy  season  and  that  he 
was  taken  from  Mathura  to  Gokul  through  the  flooded 
Yamuna.  We  would  not  like  his  birth  day  to  be 
celebrated  in  the  cold  seasons.  Though  the  &astras 
require  Bohinl  Naksatra  on  the  birth  day  of  the  Lord 
Kr§qa,  we  would  rather  accept  his  birth  day  in^  the 
rainy  season  with  Sayana  or  Cola  Bohirii  on  that  day. 
Similarly  about  Vaisakhi  Purnima,  kravanl  Purnima, 
Maghi  Purnima,  Sarasvati  Puja,  mentioned  in  the 
memorandum,  we  do  like  to  celebrate  them  in  the 
seasons  in  which  they  are  at  present  being  celebrated 
and  on  days  on  which  we  shall  have  Sayana  or  Gala 
Visakha,  feravana,  Magha ,  etc.  nakyatras.  By  adopting 
Sayana  or  Cala  nak$atras ,  we  will  avoid  the  necessity 
of  two  systems,  one  sidereal  and  other  tropical 
suggested  by  the  objectors  and  which  will  be  too 
confusing  to  the  public.  The  adoption  of  two  systems 
will  give  rise  to  difficulties  in  Dharmasastra.  It  will 
give  rise  to  questions  abcatf  the  system  according  to 
which  particular  ceremonies  are  to  be  performed, 
and  different  pandits  will  give  different  solutions  to 
these  questions.  Thus  there  will  be  all  confusion. 
On  the  contrary  by  adopting  Sayana  or  Cala  nakqatra 
for  all  ceremonies  and  Sayana  months,  we  avoid  all 
confusion  and  create  certainty. 


The  evidence  in  favour  of  seasonal  months  is  so 
strong  that  the  objectors  make  the  following  statement 
in  favour  of  them.  “In  early  Vedic  times  the  sacrifices 
were  performed  in  seasonal  months.  So  all  the  Vedic 
festivals  should  no  doubt  be  observed  in  the  seasonal 
months.”  But  the  objectors  say,  “But  we  do  not 
agree  that  all  other  festivals  which  developed  after  the 
Vedic  period,  are  required  to  be  observed  in  the 
seasonal  months.”  This  objection  cannot  stand  because 
there  is  no  ground  to  suppose  that  the  Dharmaiastra 
with  the  object  of  making  a  change  accepted  the 
sidereal  year  in  place  of  the  seasonal  yfear. 

It  may  be  said  that  the  names  Caitra ,  Vaisakha  etc. 
prove  that  the  Dharmdsastras  accepted  the  sidereal 
year  in  place  of  the  seasonal  year.  But  this  reasoning 
is  refuted  by  the  fact  that  they  changed  the  beginning 
of  the  year  from  one  nakqatra  to  another  to  keep 
agreement  with  the  seasons.  Therefore  the  conclusion 
is  that  even  the  names  Caitra,  Vaisakha  etc.  in 
Dharma&astra  implied  particular  seasons.  Here  I  wilt 
cite  the  authority  of  the  famous  work  Dharmasindhu 
which  plans  to  give  decisions  without  citing  authority. 
The  work  says,  =fwrw  i 

WTOii:  i  g  i 

snvr  i 

Translation  :  Every  two  months  from  Caitra 
constitute  lunar  seasons  beginning  from  Vasanta. 
However  when  there  is  intercalary  month  the  lunar 
season  consists  of  something  less  than  90  days.  It 
is  proper  to  mention  the  lunar  season  in  all  the 
ceremonies  ordained  by  and  wfb. 

This  means  that  whenever  there  is  the  word  Caitra 
it  implies  the  season  Vasanta.  This  was  no  doubt  the 
condition  when  the  name  Caitradi  first  came  into 
existence.  But  now  Caitra  comes  in  hot  season  (  ). 

The  late  S.  B.  Dixit  also  says  : — 

uranic  ^rrar»r  «ni  ^iwt, 

^rrff  jiict  RiRniq.  ^rb??r 

frffa  ’ffi-fsrnsr  ^ig  ,®t  vftwrW  nwai  vrrN-” 

Translation  :  The  technical  language  that  Caitra 
and  Vaisakha  are  the  months  of  Vasanta  is  found  in  all 
works.  Long  time  after  it  was  established,  the  beginning 
of  the  seasons  receded  back.  Therefore  in  some  works 
we  find  the  technical  language  that  the  Mina  and 
Me$a  i.e.  phalguna  and  Caitra  are  the  months  of 
Vasanta,  and  in  some  paftcaiigas  seasons  are  written 
according  to  that.  At  present  Vasanta  comes  in  the 
months  of  Magha  and  Phalguna.  Even  then  the 
technical  language  that  Caitra  and  VaisSkha  is  Vasanta 
predominates. 


20 


REPORT  OF  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


All  this  shows  that  even  when  the  names  Caitra, 
Vaisakha  etc.  were  used  they  meant  a  particular 
season  also  and  that  the  season  implied  has  been 
changing.  The  resolutions  of  our  Committee  in  our 
first  meeting  amount  to  this  that  Caitra  and  Vaisakha 
hereafter  shall  always  mean  the  Gri$ma  (hot  season) 
etc.  The  memorandum  of  the  objectors  says  that  in 
the  Dharmakastra  seasons  or  seasonal  months  are  not 
mentioned.  To  this  my  reply  is  as  follows  : 

In  the  Dharmakastra  that  enjoins  the  particular 
ceremony  there  may  be  no  mention  of  seasons  or 
seasonal  months.  But  the  names  of  the  months  Caitra , 
Vaisakha  etc.  are  always  there,  and  the  names  of  the 
months  implies  particular  season  as  shown  above. 
Therefore  the  words  Phalguna  and  Caitra  in  Dharma¬ 
kastra  always  imply  the  Vasanta  season  and  Vaisakha 
always  implies  the  hot  seasons.  This  is  the  interpreta¬ 
tion  that  we  have  to  give  to  these  names.  By  these 
names  they  always  meant  the  particular  seasons.  We 
can  give  effect  to  the  real  meaning  of  these  names 
only  by  supposing  that  Caitra  means  Sayana  Caitra, 
Vaisakha  means  Sayhna  Vaisakha  etc. 

I  have  already  suggested  above  that  it  is  confusing 
to  accept  the  seasonal  year  for  some  ceremony  and 
sidereal  year  for  other.  It  is  better  to  hold  that  even 
the  words  Caitra,  Vaisakha  etc.  imply  the  particular 
seasons  and  to  take  the  seasonal  year  and  seasonal 
months  for  all  ceremonies. 

The  memorandum  raises  objections  on  the  grounds 
of  the  scientific  terminology,  Indian  tradition  and 
lexicography.  This  ground  vanishes  if  we  say  that 
our  names  are  really  Sayana  Caitra,  Sayana  Vaisakha 
and  Sayana  or  Cola  Asvini,  Sayana  or  Gala  Bhararfl, 


etc.,  and  if  we  say  that  these  names  express  the  real 
meaning  of  Caitra,  etc.  and  Akvml  etc.  used  in 
Dharmakastras. 

India  is  the  country  of  blind  orthodoxy.  Whenever 
any  improvement  is  proposed  the  people  suppose  that 
they  will  be  drowned  in  the  torrent  of  improvements, 
and  they  oppose  the  improvement  blindly.  Any 
person  who  wants  to  introduce  the  improvement  has 
to  be!  firm  and  should  not  give  way  to  such  resistance. 
Signatories  of  the  memorandum  are  persons  who  would 
resist  any  improvement.  Now  they  would  resist  the 
improvement  in  the  calendar  and  if  they  become 
successful  they  would  then  resist  the  necessary 
improvements  in  the  Dharmasastra  also.  We  should 
not  take  account  of  such  people  and  we  should  take* 
care  that  we  make  no  abrupt  change  that  would 
disturb  the  passions  of  the  people.  It  is  therefore  that 
we  have  resolved  that  we  should  accept  23°  15' 
ayanafnsa  instead  of  0°  ayanafnta  as  proposed  by  some 
enthusiastic  reformers.  By  this  I  refer  to  the  memo¬ 
randum  submitted  by  Yeshwant  Pradhan,  Krishnaram 
Valgi  Bhat  and  Dattatraya  K.  Sule  who  have  proposed 
that  we  should  take  0°  as  ayanafnsa. 

In  conclusion  I  submit  that  we  have  rightly  chosen 
in  our  first  meeting  not  to  make  any  changes  in  the 
works  of  Dharmasastra  but  to  give  them  correct  inter¬ 
pretation  and  to  make  such  changes  in  the  calendar  as 
will  suit  the  calendar  to  that  correct  interpretation  of 
the  Dharmakastras.  But  unfortunately  this  decision 
has  not  been  adhered  to  fully.  Nirayaya  nakqatras 
have  been  accepted  for  the  calendar.  This  makes  a 
change  in  the  Dharmasastra  necessary.  Therefore  now 
I  suggest  the  alternative  course  suggested  in  my 
dissenting  note. 


K.  L  Daftari. 


ANNEXURE  V 


LIST  OF  PANCANGAS  RECEIVED. 

The  following  paftcaiigas  have  been  received  from  different  parts  of  India  in  response  to  the  request 
issued  through  the  Press  in  March,  1953,  for  furnishing  the  office  with  three  copies  of  the  paficaiigas  covering 
the  year  1953-54. 


1. 

Janmabhoomi  (  Gujrati  ) 

Ghogha  Street,  Fort,  Bombay. 

20. 

Sri  Visvavijay  Panchang  (  Hindi  ) 

Goel  Brothers  Pustakalaya, 

2. 

Sandesh  Pratyaksha  Panchang  (  Gujrati  ) 

Daribakala,  Delhi. 

22,  Saraswati  Society,  Sarkhej  Road, 
Ahmedabad-7. 

21. 

Shuddha  Kartiki  Panthang  (  Gujrati  ) 
Ahmedabad. 

3. 

Jnanmandal  Saura  Panchang  (  Hindi  ) 

Banaras-1. 

22. 

Gharcha  Jyotishi  (  Marathi  ) 

471,  Somwar  Peth,  P.O.  Karad, 

4. 

Udiyavara  Panchangam  (  Hindi ) 

Dist.  Satara. 

Mangalore. 

23. 

Saptarshi  Panchang  (  Hindi  ) 

5. 

Chitrasala  Panchang  (  Marathi  ) 

Bazar  Sitaram,  Delhi. 

1026,  Sadasiv  Peth,  Poona  2. 

24. 

Nagpur  Tilak  Panchang  (  Marathi ) 

6. 

Datey’s  Marathy  Chaitri  Astronomical 

Panchang  galli,  Mahal,  Nagpur-2. 

Ephemeris  &  Almanac  (  Marathi  ) 

537,  South  Kasaba,  Sholapur. 

25. 

Sri  Kalikata  Visvanatha  Panchang  (  Hindi  ) 
159A,  Muktaram  Babu  Street,  Calcutta. 

7. 

Maharastra  Panchang  (  Marathi  ) 

Girgaon,  Bombay-4. 

26. 

Sri  Krishna  Panchang  (  Hindi ) 

20,  Nariwal  Gali,  Lucknow. 

8. 

Vidharva  Panchang  (  Marathi  ) 

Girgaon,  Bombay-4. 

27. 

Bisuddha  Siddhanta  Panjika  (  Bengali  ) 

85,  Grey  Street,  Calcutta-5. 

9. 

Vijayanam  Samvatsari  Panchang  (  Marathi  ) 
915/1,  Shivajinagar,  Poona-4. 

28. 

Jagajjyoti  Panjika  (  Bengali  ) 

55A,  Raja  Dinendra  Street,  Calcutta-6. 

10. 

Vijayanam  Samvatsari  Panchang  (  Marathi  ) 
Girgaon,  Bombay-4. 

29. 

Directory  Susiddhanta  Panjika  (  Bengali  ) 

62A,  Jay  Mitra  Street,  Calcutta-5. 

11. 

Nirnaya  Sagar  Panchang  (  Marathi  ) 

26/28  Kolbhat  St.,  Bombay-2. 

30. 

Nutan  Purna  Chandra  Panjika  &  Directory 

(  Bengali ) 

12. 

Kutchi  Ashadhi  Panchang  (  Gujrati  ) 

40,  Garanhata  Street,  Calcutta. 

Kailash  Bhavan,  Penchhatdi, 

Bhuj  (  Kutch  ). 

31. 

Nabagraha  Panjika  (Bengali) 

16  Kashi  Mitra  Ghat  Street, 

13. 

Kolhapuri  Panchang  (  Marathi  ) 

Bagbazar,  Calcutta. 

Hire  Math,  Shukrawar  Peth,  Kolhapur. 

32. 

B.  K.  Pal  &  Co/s  Panjika  (Bengali) 

14. 

Latkar  Panchang  (  Marathi  ) 

152B,  Mahadwar  Road,  Kolhapur. 

1  &  3  Bonfield’s  Lane, 

Pal’s  Building,  Calcutta. 

15. 

Visapurkar  Panchang  (  Marathi ) 

P.O.  Sangli,  Dist.  Satara  South. 

33. 

Varsa  Vabhisya 

P.O.  Karad,  Dist.  Satara. 

16. 

Sri  Mahendra  Jain  Panchang  (  Gujrati  ) 
Ahmedabad-7. 

34. 

Kumbhakonam  Maduthu  Panchang  (Tamil) 
Melapavur,  Dist.  Tirunelvelli. 

17. 

Grahalaghaviya  Sukshma  Panchang  (Marathi) 
P.O.  Deshing,  Kolhapur, 

£>t.  S .  Satara. 

35. 

Drigganitha  Panchangam  (Tamil) 

Thillai  Vasam,  Madduvil  North 
Chavakachcheri,  S.  India. 

18. 

Brihan  Maharastriya  Panchang  (  Marathi ) 

364,  Somwar  Peth,  Poona-2. 

36. 

Bharatiya  Ephemeries  of  Planets’  Positions 

(Telegu) 

19. 

Prachin  Grahalaghaviya  Paddhati  Panchang 

P.O.  Podagatlapalli,  Dist.  East  Godavari. 

(  Marathi ) 

(Ganapati  Sansthan  Press),  Sangli,  Poona. 

37. 

Pathuri  Vari  Panchang  (  Telegu) 

147rMint  Street,  Madras  7. 

22 


38. 


39. 

40. 

41. 

42. 

43. 

44. 

45. 

46. 

47. 

48. 

49. 


EEPOET  OP  THE  CALENDAE  EEPOEM  COMMITTED 


Purna  Sastriya  Andhra  Patrika  Panchang 

(Telegu) 

P.O.  Podagatlapalli,  Via  Tanuku 
Dist.  East  Godavari. 

Vijayanam  Samvatsara  Panchang  (Telegu) 
P.O.  Podagatlapalli,  Dist.  East  Godavari. 

Vijayanam  Samvatsari  Panchang  (Telegu) 

147  Mint  Street,  Madras-1. 

Vikritinam  Samvatsara  Panchang  (Telegu) 
Ankapalli,  Dist.  W.  Godavari. 

Bhungalia  Panchang  (Gujrati) 

Amareli,  Saurashtra. 

Reformer  Almanac  (Malayalam) 

Reformer  Press,  Calicut,  S.  Malabar. 
Jolsyamithra  Almanac  (Malayalam) 

Congress  Press,  Palghat  Post, 

Malabar. 

Yogakshemam  Panchangam  (Malayalam) 
Panchangam  Press,  Kunnamkulam, 
Travancore-Cochin  State. 

Suddha  Nirayan  Panchang  (Marathi). 

C/o.  Keshari  Mudranalaya, 

568  Narayan  Kelkar  Road,  Poona-2. 
Shuddha  Panchang  (Marathi) 

140  Shukrawar  Peth,  Poona-2. 

Vijaya  Samvatsara  Siddhanta  Panchangam 

(Telegu) 

Via  Kollur,  Dt.  Guntur. 

Lingala  Bangaraiah  Siddhanti’s  Almanac 

(Telegu) 

Via  Tanuku,  Dist.  East  Godavari 
Andhra  State. 


50.  Namogal  Drig-ganitha  Saura  Muhurtha 

Panchangam  (Tamil) 
31  Ayalur  Muthiah  Mudali  Street 
P.O.  Sowcarpet,  Madras-1. 

51.  Sri  Sringagiri  Sri  Jagat  Guru  Srimath 

Panchangam  (Kanada) 
Kollegal,  Coimbatore,  Madras. 

52.  Kottur  Guru  Basaveswara  Panchangam 

(Kanada) 

P.O.  Kottur,  Dist.  Bellary. 

53.  Panchang  for  1953-54.  (Kanada) 

P.O.  Haveri,  Dt.  Dharwar, 

Kanada. 

54.  Hooli  Siddhanta  Papchangam  (Kanada) 

Brihan  Math,  P.O.  Hooli, 

Dist.  Bringham. 

55.  Hubbali  Panchangam  (Kanada) 

P.O.  Hubli,  Dt.  Dharwar,  Kanada. 

56.  Bhagyodaya  Panchangam  (Kanada) 

Taluk-Rone,  Dist.  Dharwar, 

Kanada. 

57.  Eadagoada  Panchangam  (Kanada) 

P.O.  Retihelli,  Dt.  Dharwar, 

Kanada. 

58.  Visva  Panchang  (Hindi) 

Banaras  Hindu  University,  Banaras. 

59.  Uttara  Malayala  Panchangam  (Malayalam) 

P.O.  Poyyannur,  N.  Malabar. 

60.  The ' Indian  Ephemeris,  1954.  (English) 

55A,  Raja  Dinendra  Street, 

Calcutta-6. 


ANNEXURE  VI 

The  calendar  makers  were  requested  to  furnish  certain  data  relating  to  their  calendars,  in  the  form 
of  the  following  questionnaire  issued  to  them.  The  replies  received  will  be  found  in  the  following  pages. 


QUESTIONNAIRE 


1.  Name  of  the  PancShga. 

2.  The  year  from  which  it  is  being  published. 

3.  Language  in  which  it  is  published. 

4.  Office  address. 

5.  Name  of  the  chiefvcompiler. 

6.  Sayana  or  Nirayaqa  ? 

7.  Solar  or  luni-solar  ?  If  luni-solar  whether 
'  PnrqimSnta  or  AmSnta  ? 

8.  Beginning  of  the  year. 


9.  Principal  Era  used,  give  the  era  of  the  current 
year  with 'the  English  date  of  its  beginning. 

10.  Give  the  names  of  the  months  from  the 
beginning  of  the  year. 

11.  Length  of  the  solar  year  adopted. 

12.  Amount  of  AyanSmsa  on  21st  March,  1954. 

13.  Annual  rate  of  ayan3ihsa  (precession)  adopted, 

14.  Whether  calculations  .  are  based  on  modern 
method  or  the  old  Siddhantic  method  ?  Give 
the  name  of  the  book,  if  any,  on  which  the 
calculations  are  based. 


REPLIES  TO  QUESTIONNAIRE 


(  l  ) 

Ques.  No.  Reply 

1.  Bisuddha  Siddhanta  P&njika. 

2.  1297  B.  S„  1890  A.  D. 

3.  Bengali. 

4.  85,  Grey  Street,  Calcutta-5. 

5.  Sasthi  Charan  Jyotirbhusan. 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  Solar. 


(  .2  ) 

Ques.  No.  Reply 

1  Kumbakonam  Madathu 
Panchangam. 

2.  1876  A.D. 

3.  Tamil. 

4.  The  Pioneer  Publication,  Teppa 
kulam,  Trichinipoly, 

Madras  State. 

5.  P.  N.  Krishna  Ayengar. 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  Solar. 


Questionnaire 

1.  Name  of  the  Pancanga. 

2.  The  year  from  which  it  is  being 
published. 

-3.  Language  in  which  it  is  published. 

4.  Office  address. 


5.  Name  of  the  chief  compiler. 

6.  Sayana  or  Nirayana  ? 

7.  Solar  or  luni-solar  ?  If  luni-solar 
whether  Purpimanta  or  Amanta  ? 

8.  Beginning  of  the  year. 

9.  Principal  Era  used,  give  the  era  of 
the  current  year  with  the  English 
date  of  its  beginning. 

10.  Give  the  names  of  the  months  from 
the  beginning  of  the  year. 

11.  Length  of  the  solar  year  adopted. 

12.  Amount  of  Ayanamsa  on  21st 
March,  1954. 

13.  Annual  rate  of’  ayanamsa  (pre¬ 
cession)  adopted. 

14.  Whether  calculations  are  based 
on  modern  method  or  the  old 
Siddhantic  method  ?  Give  the 
name  of  the  book,  if  any,  on  which 
the  calculations  are  based. 


Questionnaire 

1.  Name  of  the  Pancanga. 

2.  The  year  from  which  it  is  being 
published. 

3.  Language  in  which  it  is  published. 

4.  Office  address. 

5.  Name  of  the  chief  compiler. 

6.  Sayana  or  Nirayana  ? 


7.  Solar  or  luni-solar  ?  If  luni-solar 
whether  Purpimanta  or  Amanta  ? 

8.  Beginning  of  the  year. 

9.  Principal  Era  used,  give  the  era  of 
the  current  year  with  the  English 
date  of  its  beginning. 

10.  Give  the  names  of  the  months  from 
the  beginning  of  the  year. 

11.  Length  of  the  solar  year  adopted. 

12.  Amount  of  Ayanarnsa  on  21st 
March,  1954. 

13.  Annual  rate  of  ayanamsa  (pre- 
•  cession)  adopted. 

14.  Whether  calculations  are  based 
on  modem  method  or  the  old 
Siddhantic  method  ?  Give  the 
name  of  the  book,  if  any,  on  which 
the  calculations  are  based. 


8.  Mesha  Sankranti. 

9.  Bengali  San,  1360  begins  on  14th 
April,  1953. 


10.  Vaisakha  to  Chaitra. 


11.  365a. 25636. 

12.  23°  12'  45" 

13.  50".3. 

14.  Modem  method. 

Karanvallabha  by  Badhayallabha 
Jyotistirtha  &  Nautical  Almanacs 
of  different  countries. 


(  3  ) 

Ques.  No.  Reply 

1.  Paturi  Vari  Panchangam. 

2.  1946  A.D. 

3.  Telegu. 

4.  147  Mint  Street,  Madras-1. 

w 

5.  Paturi  Subbaraya  Sastry  & 
Paturi  Sri  Kama  Murthy. 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  Luni-Solar. 

8.  Ghaitra  Suddha  Pradhama. 

9.  Salivahana  Saka  (elapsed)  begins 
on  Chaitra  Suddha  Pradhama. 

10.  Chaitra,  Vaishaka,  Jyestha, 
Asadha,  Sravana,  Bhadrapada, 
As  way  uj  a  ,Kartika,  Margasira, 
Pushya,  Magha,  Phalguna. 

11.  365d  15g  31VR 

12.  23°  12'  4" 

13.  50".25 

14.  Old  Siddhantic  Method. 
Ganakananda. 


8.  Mesha  Sankranti. 

9.  Pravabadi  year,  Vijayanam 
Samvatsaram  and  Kollam  andu 
1128  begins  on  13th  April,  1953. 

10.  Chitrai,  Yaikasi,  Ani,  Adi,  Avani, 
Purattasi,  Arpisi,  Karthigai, 
Margali,  Thai,  Masi,  Panguni. 

11.  365d  6h  9m 

12.  23°  12'  9''. 88 

13.  50". 2677 

14.  Modern  method. 

Ketaki’s  Grahaganitam, 
Jyotirganitam, 

Grahakoshtha  Ganitam, 

Ganita  Nirnayam  &  Nautical 
Almanac. 

(4) 

Ques.  No.  Reply 

1.  Chitrasala  Panchang. 

2.  1924-25  A.  D.  (Saka  1846). 

3.  Marathi. 

4.  Chitrasala  Press,  10/26  Sadasiv 
Peth,  Poona-2. 

5.  Dhundiraj  Laxman  Date  of 
Sholapur  and 

Gopal  Balwant  Joshi  of  Poona. 

6.  Nirayana,  Sun  &  Moon’s  entry 
into  signs,  nakshatras,  yogas  are 
also  given  on  3ayana  basis. 

7.  Luni-Solar,  Amanta. 

8.  1st  tithi  of  Chaitra. 

9.  Salivahana  Saka  1875  begins  on 
16th  March,  1953. 

10.  Chaitra  to  Phalguna.- 


11 .  365d  6h  9“  11s  (365d  15g  22p  57vp) 

12.  23°  12'  7" 

13.  50". 2 

14.  Modern  method. 

Ketkar’s  Jyotirganitam, 
Grahaganita. 


24 


REPORT  OF  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


(5) 

Ques.  No.  Reply 

1.  Gupta  Press  Panjika. 

2.  1277  B.  S.  (Sakabda  1792). 

3.  Bengali. 

4.  37/7  Beniatola  Lan**  Caleutta-9. 

6.  Pt.  Ramrup  Vidyabagis. 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  Solar  (with  all  informations  re¬ 
garding  lxmi-solar,  both  pumi- 
manta  and  amanta  of  the  year). 

8.  1st  Vaisakha. 

9.  Bangabda  1360  begins  on 
14th  April,  1953. 

10.  Vaisakha  to  Chaitra. 

11.  365d  .258756481  mean  solar  days. 

12.  21°  49'  26."55 

13.  54" 

14.  Siddhantic  method. 
iSurya  Siddhanta) 


(8) 

Ques.  No.  Reply 

1.  Latkar  Panchang. 

2.  1910  A.D.  (Saka  1832). 

3.  Marathi  &  Sanskrit  mixed. 

4.  152B,  Mahadwar  Road, Kolhapur. 

5.  Vasudeo  Sankar  Latkar. 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  Luni-Solar,  Amanta. 

8.  1st  day  of  Chaitra. 

9.  Salivahana  Saka  1875  begins  on 
16th  March,  1958. 

10.  Chaitra  to  Phalguna. 

11.  365d  6b  9m 

12.  23°  12'  6" 

13.  50".  22 

14.  Modern  method. 

Jyotirganita,  Grahaganita, 
Karanakalpalata. 


(6) 

Ques.  No.  Reply 

1.  Gharcha  Jyotishi. 

2.  1920  A.D, 

3.  Marathi. 

4.  471  Somwar  Peth,  P.  O.  Karad, 
Bombay  State. 

5.  Uddhav  Vishnu  Ruikar. 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  Luni-Solar,  Amanta. 

8.  Chaitra  Sukla  1. 

9.  Salivahana  Saka,  1875  begins  on 
16th  March,  1953. 

10.  Chaitra  to  Phalguna. 

11.  365d  15g  23vg 

12.  23°  12'  8" 

13.  50” 

14.  Modern  method. 

Ketaki  Jyotirganita. 


(9) 

Ques.  No.  Reply 

1.  Kolhapur i  Panchang. 

2.  1910  A.D.  (Saka  1832). 

3.  Marathi  &  Sanskrit  mixed. 

4.  Hire  Math,  Sukrawar  Peth, 
Kolhapur. 

5.  Pt.  Channabasava  SaBtry 
Gurupad  Swamy. 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  Luni-Solar,  Amanta. 

8.  1st  day  of  Chaitra. 

9.  Salivahana  Saka  1875,  begins  on 
16th  March,  1953. 

10.  Chaitra  to  Phalguna. 

11.  365d  6h  9“ 

12.  23°  12'  6" 

13.  50".  22 

14.  Modern  method. 

Jyotirganita,  Karanakalpalata. 


(7) 

Ques.  No.  Reply 

1.  Ruikar  Varsha  Bhavishya. 

2.  1933  A.D. 

3.  Marathi. 

4.  471,  Somwar  Peth,  P.O.  Karad,. 
Bombay  State. 

5.  Uddhav  Vishnu  Ruikar. 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  Luni-Solar,  Amanta. 


8.  Chaitra  Sukla  1. 

9.  Salivahana  Saka  1875  begins  on 
16th  March,  1953. 

10.  Chaitra  to  Phalguna. 

11.  365d  15g  23vg. 

12.  23°  12'  8" 

13.  50" 

14.  Modern  method. 

Ketaki  Jyotirganita. 


(10) 

Ques.  No.  Reply 

1.  Sandesh  Pratyaksha  Panchang. 

2.  1944  A.D. 

3.  Gujrati. 

4.  22.  Saraswati  Society, 

Sarkhej  Road.  Ahmedabad  7. 

5.  Harihar  P.  Bhatt.  B.  A. 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  Luni-solar,  Amanta. 

8.  October-November. 

9.  Vikrama  Samvat  (Kartiki) 

2010  begins  on  7th  Nov.,  1953  . 

10.  Kartika  to  Asvina. 

11.  365d  6h  9m 

12.  23°  12'  8" 

13.  50”.2 

14.  Modern  method. 


EEPOET  OF  THE  CALENDAE  EEFOEM  COMMITTEE 


25 


(11) 

Ques.  No.  Reply 

1.  H.  Kartigeya  Iyer  Drigganita 

Panchangam. 

2.  1887  A.D. 

3.  Tamil. 

4.  Thillaivasam,  Madduvil, 

P.O.  Chavakachcheri  (Ceylon) 

S.  India. 

5.  S.  Subramania  Ayer. 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  Luni-Solar,  Amanta. 

8.  Sun  entering  1st  point  of  Asvini. 

9.  Saka  1877  begins  on 

14th  April,  1954  (Kali  5056). 

10.  Chitrai,  Vaikasi,  Ani,  Adi,  Avani 
Purottosi,  Ipasi,  Kartigai, 
Margali,  Thai,  Masi,  Panguni. 

11.  36  5d  15s  23v* 

12.  23°  12'  9". 87 

13.  50". 26 

14.  Modern  method. , 

Chathray’s  Tables  & 
Chandrasarani. 


(12) 

Ques.  No.  Reply 

1.  Purna  Sastriya  Andhra  Patrika 

Panchangam. 

2.  1945  A.D. 

3.  Sanskrit  &  Telegu. 

4.  P.O.  Podagatlapally, 

Dt.  East  Godavari. 

5.  Pidaparthi  Krishnamurthi  Sastry. 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  Luni-Solar,  Amanta. 

8.  Chaitra  Sukla  1. 

9.  Salivahana  Saka  1875  begins 
on  16th  March,  1953. 

10.  Chaitra  to  Phalguna. 

11.  365d  15®  23v®. 

12.  23°  12'  7"  , 

13.  50". 268 

14.  Modern  method. 
Grahasadhanakoshtaka 
by  Kerolaxmana  Chatraji, 
Ketkar’s  Jyotirganita. 


(13) 

Ques.  No.  Reply 

1.  Krishnamurthi  Sastry 

Panchangam 
(Family  panchangam) 

2.  From  about  350  years. 

3.  Sanskrit  &  Telegu 

4.  P.O.  Podagatlapally, 

Dt.  E.  Godavari. 

5.  Pidaparthi  Krishnamurthi  Sastry. 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  Luni-Solar,  Amanta. 

8.  Chaitra  Sukla  1. 

9.  Salivahana  Saka,  1875  begins  on 
16th  March,  1953. 

10.  Chaitra  to  Phalguna. 

11.  365d  15®  23v« 

12.  23°  12'  7" 

13.  50".  -268 

14.  Modern  method. 

G  r  ahasad  hanakoshtaka 
by  Kerolaxmana  Chatraji, 
Ketkar’s  Jyotirganita. 


(14) 

Ques.  No.  Reply 

1.  Purnasashtriya  Panchangam. 

2.  From  about  350  years. 

3.  Sanskrit  &  Telegu. 

4.  P.O.  Podagatlapally, 

E.  Godavari. 

5.  Pidaparthi  Subramanya  Sastry. 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  Luni-Solar,  Amanta. 

8.  Chaitra  Sukla  1. 

9.  Salivahana  Saka,  1875  begins  on 
16th  March,  1953. 

10.  Chaitra  to  Phalguna. 

11.  365d  15*  23v* 

12.  23°  12'  7" 

13.  50".268 

14.  Modern  method. 

Ketkar’s  Jyotirganita . 


(15) 

Ques.  No.  Reply 

1 .  Directory  Susiddhanta  Panjika. 

2.  1356  B.  S.  (1949  A.D.) 

3.  Bengali. 

4.  62A,  Jaymitra  Street,  Calcutta-5. 

5.  Pt.  Dwijapada  Goswami 

Jyotisastry. 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  Solar.  . 

8.  Mesha  Sankranti. 

9.  Bengali  San  1360  begins  on 
14th  April,  1953. 

10.  Vaisakha  to  Chaitra 

11.  365d. 256363 

12.  23°  13'  25" 

13.  50". 27 

14.  Modern  method.  By  the  help  of 
special  tables. 


(16) 

Ques.  No.  Reply 

1.  Bhungalia  Panchang. 

2.  Since  100  years. 

3.  Gujrati. 

4.  Kameswar  Pustakalaya, 

Amareli,  Kathiawad. 

5.  Pt.  N.  G.  Deshingkar. 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  Luni-Solar,  Amanta. 

8.  Chaitra  S  1,  4th  April,  1954, 

9.  — 

10.  Chaitra  to  Phalguna 

11.  — 

12.  23°  10'  0" 

13.  58".  5 

14.  Old  Grahalagaviya  Siddhantic 
method. 


C.E  -4 


26 


REPORT  OF  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


(17) 

Ques.  No.  Beply 

1.  Jogakshemam  Panchangam. 

2.  1908-09  A.D,  (Malayalam  year 
1085). 

3.  Malayalam. 

4.  Panchangam  Press,  Kunnam- 
kulam,  T.  C.  State. 

5.  Kanipayyoor  Sankaran 

Nambudiripada. 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  Solar. 

8.  First  day  of  Simha  falling  on 
middle  of  August. 

9.  Malayalam  Era  or  Kollam  Era 
1129  begins  on  17th  August 
1953. 

10.  Simha,  Ivanya,  Tula,  Vriscika, 
Dhanus,Makara, Kumbha,  Meena, 
Mesa,  Vrisabha,  Mithuna, 
Karkitaka. 

11.  365a  6h  12ra.5  r(365a  15«  31v«.25) 

12..  22°  23'  27" 

13.  48" 

14.  Old  Brahma  Siddhanta  method. 
Kriyakramam  &  Panchabodham. 


(20) 

Ques.  No.  Beply 

1.  Prachin  Grahalagaviya  Paddhati 
Panchang. 

2.  1852  Saka. 

3.  Marathi. 

4.  Ganapati  Sangsthan  Press, 

Sangli,  Poona. 

5.  Raghunath  Sikdev  Gulbani. 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  Luni-Solar,  Amanta. 

8.  Chaitra  Sukla  Pratipada. 

9.  Saka  era  begins  on  16th  March, 
1953. 

10.  Chaitra-Phalguna. 

'll.  365a  158  3lvg.52 

12.  23°  8'  3" 

13.  58". 2 

14.  Old  &  modern  method  mixed. 
Surya  Siddhanta,  Grahalaghava, 
and  works  of  R.  N.  Apte, 


(18) 

Ques.  No.  Beply 

1.  Janmabhoomi  Khagola  Siddha 
Nirayana  Kartiki  Panchanga. 

2.  (2002  Samvat)  1945  A.D. 

3.  Gujrati. 

4.  Janmabhoomi  Bhavan, 

Ghoga  Street,  Fort-Bombay, 

5.  Devshi  Virji  Khona. 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  Luni-Solar,  Amanta. 

8.  Kartika  Sukla  Pratipada. 

9.  Current  Vikram  Era  2010  begins 
on  7th  November  1953. 

10.  Kartika  to  Asvina. 


11.  365a. 256360 

12.  23°  12'  7" 

13.  50". 25 

14.  Modern  method. 

Tables  of  the  Sun  &  the  Moon 
by  Dr.  Gorakh  Prasad,  Ketkar’s 
Jyotirganitam,  Tables  of  Mercury 
by  H.  P.  Bhatt,  Karanakalpalata 
by  Dr.  K.  L.  Daftari,  Raj  Jyotish 
Ganitam  by  C.  G.  Rajan  and 
Nautical  Almanacs. 

(21) 

Ques.  No.  Beply 

1.  Ja^gajjyoti  Panjika. 

2.  1952  A.  D.  (1359  B.  S.) 

3.  Bengali. 

4.  55 A,  Raja  Dinendra  Street, 
Calcutta-6. 

5.  N.  C.  Lahiri  M.A. 

6.  Nirayana 

7.  Solar. 

8.  Mesa  Samkranti 

9.  Bengali  San,  1360  B.S.  begins  on 
14th  April,  1953. 

10.  Vaisakha  to  Caitra. 

11.  365.a25636 

12.  23°  13'  25” 

13.  50  ".27 

14.  Modern  method. 

Tables  of  the  Sun 
by  N.  G.  Lahiri, 

Karanavallabha  by  Radha- 
vallabha  Jyotistirtha  &  Nautical" 
Almanacs. 


(19) 

Ques.  No.  Beply 

1.  Nagpur  Tilak  Panchang. 

2.  1925  A.  D.  (1848  Saka) 

3.  Marathi. 

4.  Panchang  gulli,  Mahal,  Nagpur-2 

5.  Gangadhar  Ramkrishna  Deo  of 
Nagpur  &  Dattatraya  Krishna 
Rao  Sule  of  Bombay. 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  Luni-Solar,  Amanta. 

8.  Chaitra. 

9.  Saka  era  1875  begins  from 
16th  March,  1953. 

10.  Chaitra  to  Phalguna. 


11.  365.“  2564 

12.  19°  13'  51" 

13.  50".  27 

14.  Modern  method. 
Karanakalpalata 

by  Dr.  K.  L.  Daftari. 


(22) 

Ques.  No.  Beply 

1.  Yisapurkar  Panchang. 

2.  1922  A.  D. 

3.  Marathi. 

4.  Old  Sangli,  P.  O.  Sangli, 

Dt.  Satara  South. 

5.  Bidesh  Ganesh  Joshi  Visapurkar. 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  Luni-solar,  Amanta. 

8.  Chaitra  Sukla  1. 

9.  Salivahana  Saka  18.75  begins  on 
16th  March,  1953. 

10.  Chaitra-Phalguna. 

11.  365a  6h  9m 

12.  ■  23°  12'  6" 

13.  50".  22 

14.  Modern  method. 

Jyotirganita  &  Karanakalpalata 


REPORT  OF  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


27 


(23) 

Ques.  No.  Reply 

1.  Datey’s  Panchang  (Big  size  & 
small  size  ). 

2.  Shalivahana  Saka  1833. 

3.  Marathi. 

4.  537,  South  Kasaba,  Sholapur. 

5.  Laxrnan  Gopal  Date. 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  Luni-Solar,  Amanta. 

8.  Chaitra  Sukla  1. 

9.  Current  Salivahana  Saka  1875 
begins  on  16th  March,  1953. 

10.  Chaitra  to  Phalguna. 

11.  365. d  25636 

12:  23°  12'  7" 

13.  50". 25 

14.  Modern  method. 

Tables  of  the  Sun  &  the  Moon 
by  Dr.  Gorakh -Prasad, 
Jyotirganita  by  Ketkar, 
Karanakalpalata 
by  Dr.  K.  L.  Daftari, 

Tables  of  Mercury 
by  Prof.  Harihar  Bhatt, 

Raja  Jyotish  Ganitam 
by  C.  G.  Rajan  and  Nautical 
Almanac. 

(26) 

Ques.  No.  Reply 

1.  Udiyavar  Panchanga. 

2.  1887  A.D. 

3.  Kanada  and  Hindi  since  1946. 

4.  Dharmaprakash  Press, 
Mangalore-1. 

5.  Udiyavar  Vittalacharya. 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  Luni-Solar,  Purnimanta. 

8.  Chaitra  Sukla  1. 

9.  Shalivahana  Saka  1876  begins  on 
4th  April,  1954. 

IQ.  Chaitra  to  Phalguna. 

11.  365d  15*  31p  15Tp 

12.  23°  12'  14". 3994 

13.  50". 2671 

14.  Arya  Siddhanta,  and  modern 
method  for  planets  with  hand 
written  tables. 


(24) 

Ques.  No.  Reply 

1.  Nirnaysagar  Panchang. 

2.  Shalivahana  Saka  1786. 

3.  Marathi. 

4.  Nirnaysagar  Press, 

26/28,  Kolbhat  Street, 

Kolbadevi  Road,  Bombay-2. 

5.  Laxman  Gopal  Date  of  Sholapur. 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  Luni-Solar,  Amanta. 

8.  Chaitra  Sukla  1. 

9.  Current  Shalivahana  Saka  era 
1875  begins  on  16th  March, 
1953. 

10.  Chaitra  to  Phalguna. 

11.  365.25636  days 

12.  23°  12'  7" 

13.  50". 25 

14.  Modern  method. 

Tables  of  the  Sun  &  the  Moon  by 
Dr.  Gorakh  Prasad,  Jyotirganitam 
by  V.  B.  Ketkar,  Karanakalpalata 
by  Dr.  K.  L.  Daftari,  Tables  of 
Mercury  By  Prof.  Harihar  Bhatt, 
Raja  Jyotish  Ganitam  by  C.  G.  Rajan 
&  help  of  Nautical  Almanacs. 


(27) 

Ques.  No.  Reply 

1.  Kutchi  Ashadhi  Panchang. 

%  Samvat  1960  (1903  A.D.) 

3.  Gufrathi. 

4.  Shree  Ramkrishna  Jyotish 
Karyalaya,  Kailash  Bhavan, 
Penchhatdi,  Bhuj,  Kutch. 

5.  Raj-Jyotishi  Pandit  Gulab 
Shankar  Lalji  Sharma. 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  Luni-Solar,  Amanta. 

8.  June  or  July. 

9.  Vikram  Samvat  2010  begins  on 
12th  July,  1953. 

10.  Ashadha  to  Jyestha. 

11.  365d  15s  22p  54TP 
(365d  6h  9m  9B.55) 

12.  23°  12'  8" 

13.  50".  2 

14.  Modern  method. 


(25) 

Ques.  No.  Reply. 

1.  Grahalaghaviya  Panchang. 

2.  1917  A.D. 

3.  Marathi. 

4.  Jyotirvijaya  office, 

P.O.  Deshing, 

Kolhapur  (S.  Satara). 

5.  Pt.  N.  G.  Deshingkar,  Editor. 
Jyotirvijaya. 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  Luni-Solar,  Amanta. 

8.  Chaitra  Shudha  1. 

9.  Sakarambha,  April. 

10.  Chaitra  to  Phalguna. 

11.  365d  15*  3.v*5 

12.  23°  10'  1"  * 

13.  58".  5 

14.  Ancient  Sidhantaka 
Grahalaghava  System. 

*  Zero  ayanamasa  year  450  from 
the  starting  point  Nischar  Revati 
yoga  tara. 


(28) 

Ques.  No.  Reply 

1-  Brihan  Maharashtriya  Panchang. 

2.  Shalivahan  Saka  1871 
(1949-50  A.D.) 

3.  Marathi. 

4.  364,  Somwar  Peth,  Poona-2. 

5.  Ganak  Choodamani  Pandit 
Krishna  Chandra  Shastri  Sharma. 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  Luni-Solar,  Amanta. 

8.  First  day  (Tithi)  of  the  month 
of  Chaitra. 

9.  Shalivahana  Saka  1875  begins  on 
16th  March,  1953. 

10.  Chaitra  to  Phalguna. 

11.  365d  15*  22p  57vp 
(365d  6h  9m  11s) 

12.  23°  12'  7" 

13.  50. "26 

14.  Modern  method. 

Jyotirganitam  &  Grahaganitha 
by  V.  B-  Ketkar. 


28 


REPOET'  OP  THE  CALENDAR  REPORM  COMMITTEE 


(29) 

Ques.  No.  Reply 

1.  Sri  Bapudev  Shastri  Panchang. 

2.  Vikram  Samvat  1933. 

3.  Sanskrit  &  Hindi. 

4.  Govt.  Sanskrit  College, 

Banaras. 

5.  Ganapatidev  Shastri. 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  Luni-Solar,  Purnimanta. 

8.  Chaitra  Sukla  pratipad. 

9.  Vikram  Samvat  2010  begins  on 
16th  March,  1953. 

10.  Chaitra  to  Phalguna. 


11.  1365d  15s  22p  54vp 

(365d  611  9m  99-55) 

12.  23°  12'  8" 

13.  50."2 

14.  Modern  method. 


(30) 

Ques.  No.  Reply 

1.  Jyothir  Deepika. 

2.  1947  A.  D. 

3.  Malayalam. 

4.  K.  Rama  Variar,  Astrologer 
P.O.  Thakazhi,  T.  C.  State. 

5.  K.  Rama  Variar. 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  Solar. 

8.  August. 

9.  Kollam  Era,  1129  begins  on 
17th  August,  1953. 

10.  Simha,  Kania,  Thula,  Vrishchika, 
Danus,  Makara,  Kumbha,  Meena, 
Mesha,  Vrishabha,  Mithuna 
Kataka. 

11.  365d  6h  9m  9S.55 


12.  23°  12'  8" 

13.  50. "2 

14.  Modern  Method. 


(31) 

Ques  No.  Reply 

1.  Nava  Bharatha  Panchangam. 

2.  1951  A.  D. 

3.  Malayalam. 

4.  Ramcbandra  Astro-Research 
Institute,  P.  O.  Ambalapuzha, 

T.  C.  State. 

5.  K.  P.  Vasudevan  Pillai. 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  Solar. 

8.  1st  January. 

9.  Kollam  Era  1129  begins  on  August 
17,  1953  (Principal  era  A.D.) 

10.  January,  February  and  so  on. 


11.  365d. 25636042 +0.00000011T 

(T  =  no.  of  centuries  elapsed 
from  1900  A.  D.) 

12.  23°  12'  8". 6  (mean) 

13.  50."25747 +  0  000222  T 

14.  Modern  method. 

Astronomical  papers  of  the 
American  Ephemeris. 


(32) 

(33) 

(34) 

Ques.  No.  Reply 

Ques.  No.  Reply 

Ques.  No.  Reply 

1. 

Uthara  Malay  ala  Panchangam. 

1.  Bhagyavati  Panchanga. 

1. 

Prabhakar  Panchangam. 

2. 

1114  Malayalam  Era. 

2.  19^0  A.D. 

2. 

Shalivahan  Saka  1863. 

3. 

Malayalam. 

3.  Manipuri. 

3. 

Kanada  &  Sanskrit. 

4. 

“Jyotissadan”,  P.O.  Payyannur, 

N.  Malabar. 

4.  Bhggyavati  Karyalaya, 

Chudachand  Printing  Works, 
Imphal,  Manipur. 

4. 

Prabhakar  Panchang  Karyalaya, 
Mudgal,  Dt.  Raichur 
(Hyderabad). 

5. 

V.  P.  Kunhi  Kanna  Poduval. 

5.  Devkishore  Sharma. 

5. 

Ramchandra  Prabhakar  Bhatt 

Joshi 

6. 

Nirayana. 

6.  Nirayana. 

6. 

Nirayana. 

7. 

Souramanam. 

7.  Luni-Solar,  Amanta. 

7. 

Luni-Solar,  Amanta. 

8. 

September,  1953. 

8.  1st  tithi  of  Sajibhu  (Chaitra). 

8. 

About  March. 

9. 

Malayalam  Era  1129  begins  on 
17th  September,  1953. 

9.  Manipurabda  or  Chandrabda 
1165  begins  on  16th  March,  1953. 

9. 

Shalivahan  Saka  1875  begins  on 
16th  March,  1953 

10. 

Kanni,  Thulam,  Vrischikam, 
Dhanu,  Makaram,  Kumbham, 
Meenam,  Medam,  Edavam, 

Midhunam,  Karkitaka,  Chingam. 

10.  Sajibhu,  Kalen,  Inga,  Ingel, 
Thawan,  Langban,  Mera, 
Hiyangei,  Poineu,  Wakching, 
Phairen,  Lamda. 

10. 

Chaitra  to  Phalguna: 

11. 

365 d  25636 
(365d  15«  22p  54vp) 

11.  365.258757  days  upto  the  current 

year,  but  from  4th  April  1954,  it 
will  be  365.25636  days. 

11. 

365d  15«  22p  54vp 

12. 

23°  12'  9" 

12.  23°  12'  44" 

12. 

23°  12'  8" 

13. 

50."25 

13.  50."3 

13. 

50."2 

14. 

Modern  Method. 

Ketaki  Grahaganitham. 

14.  Modern  method. 

Works  of  Bapuji  Venkatesh  Ketkar. 

14. 

Modern  Method. 

Ketkar’s  Sanskrit  Jyotirganitam 

(35) 

Reply 


EEPOET  OP  THE  CALENDAE  EEFOBM  COMMITTEE 


(37) 

Reply 


29 


(36) 


Ques.  No. 

1.  Chintadalan  Jantri. 


2.  1946  A.D. 

3.  Hindi. 

4.  Jyotish  Karyalaya,  Khurja, 
Dt.  Buland  Sahar. 

5.  Vishuddhananda  Gaur  Jyotish 
Pandit. 

6.  Sayana  (?) 

7.  Solar,  Purnimanta. 

8.  January. 

9.  Vikram  Samvat  2011  (Eng.  1954) 

10.  Jan.  to  Dec. 


11.  365d  42g  3l>  22vl>  ? 

12.  23°  52' 

13. 

14.  Jyotirganitam  ? 

(38) 

Ques.  No.  Reply 

1.  Vaijayantbi  Panchanga. 

2.  Pingala  Samvatsaram  Chaitra 
Shalivahan  1839  (23.3.  1917). 

3.  Kanada. 

4.  Vaijayanthi  Panchang  Office, 
Nerlakatte,  P.O.  Puttur  Taluk, 

S.  Kanada  (Madras). 

5.  Y.  Shankar  Joisa. 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  Luni-Solar,  Amanta. 

8.  Chaitradi. 

9.  Shalivahan  Saka  1876  begins  on 
4th  April,  1954. 

10.  Chaitra  to  Phalguna. 

11.  365d  15“  22. Tg  9479 

12.  23°  12'  6" 

13.  50.  "2 

14.  Modern  method. 

.  Jyotirganitham  by  Ketkar. 


Ques.  No.  Reply 

1.  Khandesh  Panchang. 

2.  Shaka  1866,  1944  A.  D. 

3.  Marathi. 

4.  P.  K.  Joshi, 

Eampeth,  H.N.  15,  Jalgaon,  E.K. 

5.  Pralhad  Keshav  Joshi. 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  Luni-Solar,  Amanta. 

8.  About  March  every  year. 

9.  Saka  1875  begins  on 
16th  March,  1953. 

10.  Chaitra  to  Phalguna. 


11.  365d  6h  9m  9S.55 

12.  23°  12'  8" 

13.  50."2 

14.  Modern  method. 

Mathematical  system  of  Ketkar. 

(39) 

Ques.  No.  Reply 

1.  Siddhanta  Panchangam. 

2.  Vyaya. 

3.  Telegu. 

4.  Adijyotisalayam,  Anantavaram, 
Tenali  Taluk,  Dt  Guntur. 

5.  Kuppa  Sivarama  Byragi  Sastri. 

6.  Sayana  (?) 

7.  Luni-Solar,  Amanta. 

8.  Sukla  Pratipad  of  Solar  Meena. 

9.  April,  1954. 


Ques.  No. 

1.  Jyolsyabharanam  and  Vidya- 
bhivardhini  Kanakajoobili 

Prasasti. 

2.  1085  M.  E.  (1910  A.D.) 

3.  Malayalam. 

4.  Shri  P.  S.  Purushothaman 
Numboodiri,  P.  O.  Puliyoor, 
(Via)  Chengannur,  T.  C.  State. 

5.  P.  S.  Purushothaman 
Numboodiri. 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  Solar. 

8.  Simha  Sankraman  in  August. 

9.  Malayalam  era  begins  on  16th, 
17th  or  18th  August. 

10.  Simha,  Kanya,  Thula,  Vrischika, 
Dhanu,  Makara,  Kumbha, Meena. 
Mesha,  Vrishabha,  Mithuna  and 
Karkataka. 

11.  365  or  366  days. 

12.  23°  12'  15" 

13.  50. '  '25645 + 0.  ''000229  Y 
+0. 00000000027 Ya 

14.  Modern  method  since  1932. 
Ganitha  Nirnayam  by  P.  S. 
Numboodiri. 

(40) 

Ques.  No.  Reply 

1.  Sri  Saptarshi  Panchang. 

2.  1933  A.D. 

3.  Hindi. 

4.  Bazar  Sitarm,  Delhi-6. 

5.  Pt.  Brajalal  Sharma. 

6.  Sayana  (?) 

7.  Luni-Solar,  Amanta. 

8.  Chaitra  S  1  and  Vaisakha 
Sankranti. 

9.  Vikram  Samvat  2011. 


10.  Chaitra  to  Phalguna. 

11.  365d  15*  22.vg9  or  365.  257  days. 

12.  23°  12'  7" 

13.  50. "2 

14.  Tithi,  Nakshatra,  Yoga,  Karana 
based  on  Siddhantic  method. 
Grahasanchara  on  Modern 
Method.  Marhati  Grahagani- 
tham  by  L.  Chatri.  &  Jyotirga¬ 
nitam  by  Ketkar. 


10.  Chaitra  to  Phalguna. 

11.  365  days 

12.  23°  52' 

13.  1  pal  in  a  year. 

14.  Old  method. 
Makaranda  Sarani. 


30 


REPORT  OP  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


(41, 

Ques.  No.  Reply 

1.  Sri  Viswa  Martanda  Panehang. 

2.  1934  A.D. 

3.  Hindi. 

4.  53/66,  Ramjas  Road,  Karol  Bagh, 
New  Delhi-5, 


5.  Ramnath  Agarwal. 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  Luni-Solar. 

8.  Chaitra  S  1. 

9.  Vikrama  Samvat  2011  on  4tli 
April,  1954. 

10.  Chaitra  Sukla  to  Chaitra  Krishna. 

11.  365a  15*  22p  57vp 

12.  23°12'  8"  4'" 

13.  50"  13."' 95 

14.  Modern  methood. 

Ketaki  and  Grahalaghavi. 


(44) 

Ques.  No.  Reply 

1.  Gouri  Sankara  Panehang. 

2.  1930  A.D. 

3.  Sanskrit  &  Telegu. 

4.  Gouri  Sankara  Jyotisalayam, 
Lakshmi  Polavaram,  via.  Tanuku, 
Dt.  East  Godavari. 

5.  Lingala  Bangarayya  Siddhanti. 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  Luni  Solar,  Ainanta. 

8.  Chaitra  Sukla  pratipad. 

9.  Shalivahana  Saka  1875  begins  on 
16th  March,  1953. 

10.  Chaitra  to  Phalguna. 


11.  365a  15g  23vg  or  365>256  days 

12.  23°  12'  7" 

13.  50  ."268 

14.  Modern  method. 

(a)  Grahasadhana  Kostaka  of  Kero 
Lakshmana  Chatraji, 

(b)  Jyotirganita  by  Ketkar, 

(c)  Marathi  Grahaganitam  by 
Ketkar. 


(42) 

Ques.  No.  Reply 

1.  Joshi  Girijasankar  Harisankar’s 
Suddha  Panehang. 

2.  1912  A.D. 

3.  Gujrati. 

4.  Sankadi  Sheri  Hajirani  Pole, 
Ahmedabed. 


5.  Girijasankar  H.  Joshi. 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  Luni  Solar  Amanta. 

8.  1st  day  of  bright  half  of  Kartika. 

9.  Vikram  Samvat  begins  on 
7th  Nov.,  1953. 

10.  Kartika  to  Asvina 

11.  365a  6h  9m  9.855 

12.  23°  12'  8" 

13.  50."2 

14.  Modern  method. 


(45) 

Ques.  No.  Reply 

1.  Namogal  Drigganitha 

Saura  Muhnrtha  Panchangam. 

2.  1921  A.D. 

3.  Tamil. 

4.  Sm.  C.  Kanakammal  of  Messrs. 
C.  Subramanian  &  Bros., 

31  Ayalur  Muthiah  Mudali  St. 

P.  O.  Sowcarpet,  Madras-1. 

5.  C.  Govinda  Raja  Mudaliar  alias 
C.  G.  Rajan. 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  Luni-Solar,  Amanta. 

8.  13th  or  14th  April  every  year. 

9.  Kaliyuga  era  &  Salivahana  era, 
Salivahana  1876  begins  on 

13th  April,  1953. 

10.  Luni-solar  months  Chaitra  to 
Phalguna. 

Solar  Months  : 

Chittirai,  Yaikashi,  Ani,  Adi, 
Avani,  Purathosi,  Arpisi 
Karthigai,  Margazhi,  Thai,  Masi, 
Panguni. 

11.  365.  25636  days  or  365a  15*  23v* 

12.  23°  4'  54" 

13.  50". 2684 

14.  Modern  method. 

1  Nautical  Almanacs  of  different 
countries. 


(43) 

Ques.  No.  Reply 

1.  Hosaritti  Panchanga. 

2.  1907  A.  D. 

3.  Sanskrit,  Marathi  &  Kanada. 

4.  Jyotirmartanda  Pdt. 

Shankar  Shastri. 

Hosaritti,  Kesar  i  Hind,  Haveri, 
Dt.  Dharwar,  Bombay. 

5.  Pt.  Shankar  Shastri. 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  Luni  Solar,  Purnimanta. 

8.  First  day  of  Chaitra. 

9.  Shalivahana  Saka  begins  in 
March  or  April. 

10.  Chaitra  to  Phalguna. 

11.  365a  158  30” 

12.  23°  51' 

13.  One  ghatika  every  year. 

14.  Surya  Siddhanta  method. 

(a)  Surya  Siddhanta,  (b)  Siddhanta 
Shiromoni  by  Bhaskaracharya, 

(c)  Grahalaghava  by  Ganesh 
Daivajnya, 

(d)  Tithi  Ratnavalli  by  Rama 
Daivajnya, 

(46) 

Ques.  No.  Reply 

1.  Bhagyodaya  Panehang. 

2.  1936-37  A.D. 

3.  Kanada. 

4.  Madihal,  Dharwar,  Bombay 
State. 

5.  Veerangonda  D.  S.  Patil,  Menasigi. 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  — 

8.  Chaitra  Sukla  1. 

9.  Salivahana  Saka,  1876  begins  on 
4th  April,  1954. 

10.  Chaitra-Phalguna. 


11.  — 

12.  23°  12'  9" 

13.  — 

14.  Old  Siddhantic  method. 
Arghyaprakashika. 


31 


REPOST  OP  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


(47) 

Ques.  No.  Reply 

1.  Bhagyodaya  Panchang 

alias  Chintaharan  Jantri. 

2.  1941  A.  D. 

3.  Hindi 

4.  Chintaharan  Jantri  Karyalay, 
P.O.  Kaswanda,  Dt.  Sitapur. 

5.  Pt.  Bachanprasad  Tripathi. 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  Luni  Solar,  Purnimanta. 

8.  Chaitra  Sukla  Pratipada. 

9.  Vikrama  Samvat  2011  begins  on 
4th  April,  1954. 

10.  Chaitra  to  Phalguna. 

11.  365d  15«  301J  31.4vp 

12.  23°  8'  23". 4. 

13.  54" 

14.  Old  Siddhantic  method. 
Surya-Siddhanta. 


(48) 

Ques.  No.  Reply 

1.  Sri  Sringagiri-  Sri  Jagat  Guru 

Srimath  Panchangam. 

2.  Published  since  the  last  12  yrs. 

3.  Kanada. 

4.  C/o.  Sri  Venkata  Subba  Shastri, 
P.  0.  Kollegal,  Dt.  Coimbatore. 

5.  Venkata  Subba  Shastri, 

Asthana  Vidyan. 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  Luni  Solar,  Amanta. 

8.  Chaitra  Sukla  Pratipada. 

9.  Kaliyuga  era  5055  begins  on 
4th  April,  1954. 

10.  Chaitra  to  Phalguna. 

11.  365d  158  3p  31.4™. 

12.  23°  24' 

13.  54". 9 

14.  Old  Surya  Siddhanta  method. 


(49) 

Ques.  No.  Reply 

1.  Kottur  Guru  Basaveswara 

Panchangam. 

2.  1947  A.  D. 

3.  Kanada. 

4.  Kottur  Guru  Basaveswara 
Jyotishalaya,  Kottur,  Dt.  Bellary. 
Mysore  State. 

5.  M.  V.  S.  Kotrapaiah  Sastry. 

6.  Sayana  (?) 

7.  Luni-Solar 

8.  March  to  April. 

9.  Shalivahana  Saka 

Jay  a  Samvatsara  begins  on  4th 
April,  1954. 

10.  Chaitra-Phalguna. 

11. 

12.  23°  12'  7" 

13.  — 

14.  Old  Siddhantic  method. 

(a)  Driksiddhanta, 

(b)  Grahalaghava, 

(c)  Khacharadarpana, 

(d)  Panchanga  Manjusa, 

(e)  Surya  Siddhanta. 


(50) 

Ques.  No.  Reply 

1.  Shri  Visva  Vijaya  Panchangam. 

2.  Vikrama  Samvat  2003  (1946’A.D.) 

3.  Hindi  &  Sanskrit. 

4.  Shri  Swadhaya  Sadan,  Solan, 
(Simla  Hills). 

5.  Pt.  Hardev  Sharma  Trivedi, 

Jyotisacharya 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  Luni  Solar,  Purnimanta. 

8.  March  or  April. 

9.  Vikram  Samvat  2011  begins  on 
4th  April,  1954. 

10.  Chaitra  to  Phalguna 

11.  365d  6h  9m  9.655 

12.  23°  12'  8" 

13.  5£k"2 

14.  Modern  method. 

Jyotirganitha, 

Grahalaghava. 


(51) 

Ques.  No.  Reply 

1.  Nutan  Purna  Chandra  Directory 

Panjika. 

2.  1325  B.S.  (1918  A.D.) 

3.  Bengali. 

4.  40  Garanhatta  Street,  Calcutta. 

5.  Narendra  Krishna  Jyotiratna. 

6.  Nirayana. 

7.  Solar. 

8.  Nirayana  Mesha  Sankranti. 

9.  Bengali  San  1360  starts  on 
14th  April,  1953. 

10.  Vaisakha  to  Chaitra. 

11.  365d  6h  12m  36s.57 
(365d  15g  31p  31vp.4) 

12.  21°  49'  27" 

13.  54". 

14.  Old  Siddhantic  method. 
Dinachandrika  for  panchang 
calculation  and  Siddhanta  Rahasya 
for  longitudes  of  Planets, 

by  Raghavananda  Chakravarty. 


ANNEXURE  VII 


Summary  of  suggestions  for  Indian  Calendar  Reform  received  from 
different  persons  and  institutions. 


1.  Shri  Sampurnanand, 

Home  and  Labour  Minister, 

Govt,  of  U.  P.,  Lucknow. 

Letter  dated  7.  3.  1953. 

(i)  The  adoption  of  solar  year,  (ii)  Adoption  of  “Sayana” 
system,  (iii)  The  difference  of  23  days  in  our  year  beginning 
to  be  corrected,  (iv)  Beginning  of  the  year  to  be  on  March  22, 
the  day  following  Vasanta  Sampat  (  vernal  equinox  ). 
(v)  Beginning  of  Aries  (  Mesa  )  to  be  at  a  point  180°  from 
Spica  to  mark  the  beginning  of  Asvini.  (vi)  Beginning  of 
day  from  midnight,  (vii)  Beginning  of  lunar  year  from 
Caitra.”  (viii)  Uniform  system  of  reckoning  lunar  months 
(preferably  the  purnimanta  one)  to  be  adopted,  (ix)  A  single 
era  for  India  such  as  Saka,  Kali  or  (  preferably  )  Vikrama 
to  be  adopted,  (x)  Calculations  of  paneangas  should  be 
drksiddha.  (xi)  Nurqber  of  days  per  month  may  be  fixed, 
-knd  the  leap-year  rules  should  be  the  same  as  in  the 
Gregorian  calendar. 

2.  Brahma  Shri  G.  V.  Subba  Rao,  President, 
Goshti,  “Satyaprasad”,  Waltair. 

Letter  dated  14.  4.  53. 

(i)  Adoption  of  “Kali  Saka”  era.  (ii)  Ujjain  to  be  the 
standard  meridian  of  India  and  a  National  Observatory  at 
Ujjain.  (iii)  Approves  other  recommendations  of  the 
Committee. 

3.  Shri  M.  V.  Kibe,  Saraswati  Niketan,  Indore. 
Letters  dated  24.  2.  53  and  31.  5.  53. 

(i)  Tropical  year  not  to  be  used  for  religious  purposes, 

(ii)  In  favour  of  Vikrama  Sarnvat.  (iii)  Ujjain  or  Banaras 
as  standard  Greenwich  of  India,  (iv)  One  astronomical 
observatory  with  modern  equipments  at  Ujjain.  (v)  The 
number  of  days  of  different  months  of  a  sidereal  year  to  be 
fixed  as  follows  : — Commencing  from  Vaisakha — 31,  31,  32, 
31,  31,  30,  30,  30,  29,  30,  30,  30,  or  31.  (vi)  Starting  point 
of  sidereal  zodiac  should  be  determined. 

4.  Shri  V allabhacharya  Dixit ji  Maharaj,  President 
of  the  Conference  of  Calendar  Experts,  Bombay. 

Letter  dated  13.  6.  53,  communicating  the  resolutions  passed 
at  a  conference  of  Hindu  calendar  experts  at  Poona  on 
16th  &  17th  May,  1953,  as  follows  : — 

{i)  This  Conference  congratulates  the  Govt,  of  India 
on  its  efforts  to  prepare  a ’■'National  Calendar  according  to 
Indian  system  for  the  purpose  of  reckoning  time. 

(Ii)  This  Conference  is  of  opinion  that  Luni-Solar 
'Nirayana  Calendar  giving  correct  positions  of  heavenly 
bodies  should  be  prepared  taking  the  starting  point  at  the 
beginning  of  Asvini  and  the  ayanarasa  should  be  the 
distance  of  the  Vernal  equinox  from  that  fixed  point. 


5.  Shri  Radhagovinda  Chandra,  Sarkar  Bazar, 
P.O.  Sukchar,  24  Parganas. 

Letter  dated  3.  4.  53. 

(i)  Advocates  “  Nirayapa  ”  system  of  calculation. 

(ii)  Initial  point  to  be  180°  from  the  star  Spica. 

(iii)  Correct  calculations  to  be  adopted  in  the  calendar. 

(iv)  21st  March  should  be  called  as  “Mahavifjuva  Dina” 
and  not  Mahavisuva  Samkranti. 

6.  Shri  Radhavallabh  Smriti  Vyakarana  Jyotistirtha, 
64,  Kalinath  Munshi  Lane,  Calcutta-36. 

Letter  dated  6.  4.  53. 

(i)  Advocates  ‘Nirayana’  system  of  calculations. 

(ii)  Starting  point  to  be  180°  apart  from  the  star  Spica. 

Letter  dated  2.  4.  54. 

(i)  Sayana  varsa  (tropical  year)  should  not  be  adopted 
for  our  religious  purposes,  (ii)  Sayana  system  may  be 
adopted  for  finding  the  lagna,  sunrise,  sunset  etc.  and 
nirayana  calculations  for  determining  the  naksatras. 

(iii)  Beginning  of  Asvini  naksatra  should  be  from  a  point 
180°  away  from  the  star  Citra  (  Spica  ).  (iv)  Constant 
ayahamsa  which  is  opposed  to  science,  should  not  be 
adopted  ;  if  so,  naksatras  would  lose  their  significance. 

(v)  23°  15'  ayanamsa  should  be  taken  at  the  end  of  1956. 

(vi)  The  names  of  the  months  Vaisakha,  Jyaistha  etc.  should 
not  be  used  in  the  tropical  year,  as  these  are  associated 
with  the  nirayapa  year.  Special  names  may  be  used. 

Letter  dated  nil. 

(vii)  The  number  of  days  in  the  months  should  be 
standardised,  (viii)  There  is  no  necessity  of  observing  lunar 
festivals  like  Aksaya  trtiya  always  in  the  fixed  season,  if 
it  moves  to  other  season  it  should  be  observed  in  the  new 
season. 

7.  H.  E.  Shri  Sriprakash,  Governor  of  Madras, 
Madras. 

Letter  dated  18.  5.  53. 

(i)  Beginning  of  the  year  with  the  month  of  Vaisakha, 
on  the  morrow  of  the  Sun’s  transit  into  Mesa,  (ii)  Beginning 
of  the  month  to  be  reckoned  from  Sun’s  passage  from  one 
sign  to  another,  (iii)  Christian  era  as  well  as  Salfvahana  or 
Kaliyuga  era  to  be  adopted,  (iv)  Solar  calendar  of  Jnana 
Mandal  of  Banaras  may  be  consulted  in  this  connection. 

8.  Shri  M.  S.  Bhatnagar,  Head  of  the  Dept,  of 
Geography,  M.M.H.  (Degree)  College,  Ghaziabad. 

Letter  dated  26.  2.  53. 

(i)  Proposed  central  Indian  station  for  astronomical 
observatory  should  be  at  Sonhat  in  M.  Pradesh  in  Korea 
Subdivision,  Lat.  £3°  29  N,  Long.  82°  30  E.,  about  3000 
ft.  above  sea-level. 


REPORT  OE  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


33 


9.  Shri  V.  Thiruvenkatacharya,  M.A.L.T.,  Madras 
Educational  Service  (Retd,)#  13  Musa  Sait 
Street,  T-Nagar,  Madras-17, 

Letter  dated  2.  3.  53. 

(i)  Starting  of  the  luni-solar  year  to  be  at  the  moment 
when  the  sun  enters  the  equinoctial  point,  viz.,  the  sayana 
first  point  of  Aries,  (ii)  The  problem  of  23  days’  error  in 
the  calendar  to  be  solved  by  suppressing  it  in  an  adhimasa. 
(iii)  Against  adoption  of  western  calendar. 

Letter  dated  17.  2.  54,  etc. 

(i)  The  principal  era  should  be  either  Kaliyuga  (epoch 
3102  B.C.)  or  Yudhi^thira  or  Saptarsi  f^aka  3077  B.C.  in 
place  of  ^alivahana  ^aka.  (ii)  Sayana  system  should  be 
observed  for  all  religious  purposes  instead  of  nirayapa 
'system.  The  year  should  begin  on  or  about  21st  March 
when  the  Sun  enters  sayana  first  point  of  Aries  and  not 
Asvini.  (iii)  Definite  lead  should  be  given  by  the  state  on 
the  observances  of  festivals  like  Ekadasi,  Sri  Jayanti, 
Gokulastami,  $rl  Ramanavami,  etc. 

10.  Shri  Ganga  Prasad,  M.A.,  M.R.A.S.,  Retired 
Judicial  Minister,  Tehri  Garhawal  State, 
Ex-President,  International  Aryan  League, 
Delhi,  Prithviraj  Road,  Jaipur. 

Letters  dated  25.  3.  53,  and  21.  10.  53. 

(i)  National  Solar  Calendar  on  “sayana”  system  of 
time  reckoning  to  be  adopted,  (ii)  23  days  to  be  omitted 
from  the  month  of  “Chait”  in  any  year,  the  eighth  day 
of  Chait  being  followed  by  the  first  day  of  Vaisakha. 
(iii)  Supports  the  adoption  of  Yikrama  Samvat  as  the 
era  of  the  Indian  National  Calendar,  (iv)  Favours  the 
names  of  months  as  Caitra,  Vaisakha,  etc.,  and  not  Me?a, 
Vr$a,  etc. 

11.  Shri  Harihar  P.  Bhatt,  B.A.,  President,  Editorial 
Board,  The  Sandesh  Pratyaksha  PancEang, 
22,  Saraswati  Society,  Sarkhej  Road.  Ahmedabad. 

Letter  dated  1.  5.  53. 

(i)  The  initial  point  of  the  fixed  zodiac  to  be  decided, 
(ii)  Favours  acceptance  of  the  modern  elements  of  planetary 
motion  in  pancanga  calculations. 

Letter  dated  26.  2.  54. 

(i)  Suggests  collection  of  opinion  from  the  compilers  of 
drgganita  almanacs  by  votes  on  the  following  two  items 

(a)  whether  the  year  should  be  tropical  or  sidereal, 

(b)  ayanamsa  on  a  given  date  ;  and  the  opinion  of  the- 
majority  members  is  to  be  .accepted,  (ii)  Calculations  of 
Naksatras  and  the  daily  Yogas  (  Viskumbha  etc.  )  are  to  be 
postponed  till  the  final  decision  on  the  adoption  of  the 
amount  of  ayanamsa.  (iii)  Nearly  60  almanacs  in  India 
are  following  Citra-paksa  whose  ayanamsa  is  nearly 
23°  12'  on  21.  3.  54  and  as  such  adoption  of  Citra  paksa  in 
fixing  the  initial  point  of  the  nirayana  zodiac  is  suggested. 


12.  Shri  Ambhujprasad  P.  Shulet,  Mersakasan’s 
Chawk,  Ghodhandur  Road,  Jogeswari,  Bombay. 

Letter  dated  1.  3.  53. 

(i)  Favours  adoption  of  Vikrama  Samvat.  (ii)  Starting 
month  as  Kartika  Suklapak?a.  (iii)  ^uklapakija  first, 
krspapaksa  second  in  each  month. 

13.  Shri  Srinivas  Rao  R.  Mangalvedhe,  Journalist, 
Bagalkot,  Bombay. 

Letter  dated  30.  3.  53. 

(i)  Solar  year  to  be  adopted,  (ii)  Beginning  of  the  year 
to  be  the  same  throughout  India,  (iii)  Kaliyuga  era  to  be 
adopted  for  the  whole  of  India  as  well  as  the  world. 

14.  Shri  Narendra  Nath  Bagal,  Jyotisastri, 

C/o.  Prof.  Manoranjan  Dasgupta,  38  Karbala 
Tank  Lane,  Calcutta. 

Letter  dated  27.  4.  53. 

(i)  Correct  method  of  calculations  with  nirayana  system 
of  reckoning  to  be  taken  in  making  pancahgas.  (ii  Starting 
point  to  be  180°  apart  from  the  star  Spica.  (iii)  Central 
meridian  of  India  to  be  situated  at  Ujjain.  (iv)  Dispute:of 
ayanamsa  to  be  settled,  (v)  Tropical  year  to  be  adopted 
and  the  beginning  of  the  year  to  be  22nd  March. 

15.  Shri  Poluri  Venkata  Subbaiah  Shastri,  Siddha- 
nti.  Senior  Telegu  Pandit,  Hindu  College 
High  School,  Guntur. 

Letter  dated  20.  3.  53. 

(i)  Disapproves  the  adoption  of  one  single  pahcahga  for 
the  whole  of  India  for  the  following  reasons  : — (a)  the 
moment  of  sunrise  differs  from  one  place  to  another, 
hence  aharpramana  also  differs,  resulting  in  the  correspon¬ 
ding  change  in  the  date  of  sraddha,  (b)  the  following  five 
manas  are  in  vogue  : — 1.  Saura,  2.  Savana,  3.  Candra, 
4.  Barhaspatya  &  5.  Naksatram,  (c)  no  one  can  rely  on  one 
mana  alone,  such  as  saura  or  candra  for  all  purposes, 
(d)  the  name  of  the  year  in  the  cycle  of  60  years  such  as 
Prabhava,  Vibhava  and  so  forth  also  varies  from  place 
to  place. 

Letter  dated  25.  5.  53. 

* 

(i)  Tithi  and  naksatra  to  be  calculated  according  to 
Surya  Siddhanta  and  not  according  to  modern  correct 
method,  (ii)  Drksiddha  calculations  to  be  taken  only  for 
eclipse  purposes,  (iii)  Single  calendar  for  the  whole  of  India 
may  be  adopted  for  dating  purposes  and  not  for  '  religious 
purposes,  and  this  calendar  is  also  unnecessary  if  we  take 
the  present  English  calendar  for  dating  purposes. 

16.  Shri  R.  M.  Dcshmukh,  M.P.,  171,  Constitution 
House,  New  Delhi. 

Letter  dated  23.  2.  53. 

(i)  A  uniform  standard  calendar  for  whole  of  India  is 
not  feasible  so  far  as  the  festivals,  social  and  religious 
ceremonies  of  different  parts  of  India  are  concerned. 


C.R.-5 


34 


REPORT  OP  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


(ii)  In  Maharastra,  TUak’s  Pancang  -which  is  correct 'and 
up-to-dalie.  is  not  accepted  by  the  majority  of  people 
because  of  certain  festivals,  e.g.  Dipali,  Holi  etc.,  differing  by 
one  month  from  the  other  local  pancahgas  and  as  such  one 
uniform  calendar  for  whole  of  India  may  not  be  accepted  by 
the  people,  (iii)  For  conveniences’  sake  India  should  move  for 
the  adoption  of  “World  Calendar”  in  U.  N.  O.  for  India  and 
the  world  instead  of  the  present  Gregorian  calendar,  (iv)  If 
one  uniform  calendar  is  made  for  all  purposes,  the  Pandits 
from  different  localities  would  move  in  their  own  way  by 
propagating  their  views  against  a  solution  for  uniformity. 

17.  Shri  K.  Venkataraman,  Visharad,  66  Nagappier 
Street,  Triplicane,  Madras-5. 

Letter  dated  23.  2.  53. 

Bharatiya  new  year  to  be  calculated  from  “Uttarayapa.” 

18.  Jyotisiddhanta  Kesari  K.  Venkata  Subba  Sastri, 
Sringeri,  Kollegal,  Coimbatore,  Madras. 

Letters  dated  13.  6.  53,  14.  7.  53,  etc. 

(i)  One  single  calendar  for  whole  of  India  is  not  desirable 
as  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  places  vary,  (ii)  Disapproves 
modern  calculations,  as  the  duration  of  a  tithi  exceeds 
the  limit  of  65  to  54  ghatikas  and  it  conflicts  with 
dharmasastras.  (iii)  Ancient  method  of  calculation  to 
be  taken. 

19.  Shri  Satish  Chandra  Das  Roy,  Baghbazar, 
Chandernagore,  Hooghly. 

Letter  dated  6.  4.  53. 

(i)  Bengali  year  to  be  counted  from  Caitra  to  Phalguna 
(14th  April  to  13th  April),  (ii)  The  name  Agrahayatyi  to  be 
substituted  by  M<irga&lr$a  in  Bengal,  (iii)  Bhismapancami 
($ukla)  during  the  Sun’s  stay  in  nirayapa  Me?a  to  be 
introduced,  (iv)  Western  method  of  ayana  calculation  to 
be  discarded  and  position  of  Uranus  and  NeptunS  to  be 
included,  (v)  Dispute  of  ayanamsa  to  be  settled  and  zero 
ayanamsa  year  to  be  adopted  as  499  A.D.  (  421  ^akaK). 

Letter  dated  3.  7.  53. 

States  that  the  western  theory  of  the  precession  of 
equinoxes  is  absurd.  The  trepidation  theory  of  Surya 
Siddhanta  is  correct. 

Letter  dated  14.  7.  53. 

Nirayapa  system  of  calculations  to  be  adopted. 

Letters  dated  15.  7.  53  &  24.  7.  53,  etc. 

Advocatos  oscillation  theory  of  the  equinoxes,  on  which 
the  calculations  should  be  based. 

-20.  Shri  Linga  Jois,  Secretary,  The  All  Karnataka 
Astronomical  Association,  Shimgga,  Mysore. 

Letter  dated  6.  5.  53  intimating  the  resolutions  adopted 
by  the  Association  at  its  meeting  held  on  1.  5.  53. 

(i)'  That  the  compilation  of  a  secular  calendar  applicable 
to  all  India  based  on  the  indigenous  methods  of  computation 
of  time  be  immediately  undertaken  by  the  Govt,  of  India 


and  the  Govt,  be  requested  to  immediately  constitute  a 
committee  for  that  purpose,  (ii)  That  the  All  Karnataka 
Astronomical  Association,  Shimoga,  shall  give  all  services 
to  the  Govt,  of  India  in  this  behalf  with  its  many  learned 
pandits  of  astronomy  on  the  roll  of  its  members. 

Letters  dated  24.  5.  53,  10.  7.  53  &  23.  7.  53. 

Resolutions  adopted  by  the  Association  at  its  meeting  held 
on  16.  7.  53  on  the  action  taken  by  the  Govt,  of  India 
regarding  calendar  reform,  are  as  follows  : — 

Resolved  that  the  Chairman  of  the  All  India  Calendar 
Reform  Committee,  Calcutta,  be  requested  to  select  two 
members  of  the  All  Karnataka  Astronomical  Association 
to  co-operate  with  the  members  of  the  Calendar  Reform 
Committee,  New  Delhi'. 

21.  Bisuddha  Siddhanta  Panjika,  85,  Grey  Street, 
Calcu^0 

Notes  dated  nil. 

(i)  Advocates  correct  nirayapa  (  dfk-ganitaikya  ) 
calculation. 

(ii)  Starting  point  to  be  180°  apart  from  the  star  Spica. 

(iii)  In  taking  correct  calculation,  though  the  thithimana 
may  exceed  the  limit  of  bapavfddhi  rasakijaya,  it  does  not 
conflict  with  dharmasastras. 

22.  Hony.  Secretary,  Jyotirvidya  Mandal,  Astro- 
Research  Institute,  3/25,  Contractor’s  Building, 
Charni  Road,  Girgaon,  Bombay-4. 

Letters  dated  16.  2.  53  &  30.  3.  53. 

(i)  Approves  the  interim  recommendations  of  the 
Calendar  Reform  Committee  made  at  its  first  meeting. 

23.  Devshi  Virjee  Khona,  Chief  Compiler,  Janma- 
bhoomi  Panchang,  P.O.  Box  No.  62,  Bambay-1. 

Letter  dated  16.  8.  53. 

An  ideal  Indian  calendar  should  have  the  following 
items  : — 

(a)  Samvat  era,  (b)  correct  position  of  planets, 

'  (c)  fixed  starting  point  opposite  to  the  star  Citra,  (d)  the 

longitude  should  be  nirayapa  not  sayana,  (e)  seasons  to 
be  shown  according  to  the  tropical  year. 

24.  Shri  G.R.  Paranjpe,  128  Budhwar ,  Poona  City. 
Shri  K.  V.  Phanse,  25,  Budhwar,  Poona  City. 
Shri  S.R.  Godbole,.146AShaniwar,  Poona  City. 
Shri  R.D.Karmakar,  Principal,  Research  Occult 

College,  51  Budhwar,  Poona  City. 

Letter  advocating, 

(i)  Reform  of  World  Calendar. 

(ii)  Reform  of  Indian  Calendar  : — 

(a)  Length  of  the  year  to  be  365a  5h  48m  576.65 

(b)  Beginning  of  the  year  to  be  22nd  December  or  21st  March 

(c)  Number  of  days  of  the  months  as  follows  : — 30,  30,  30, 
30,  31,  31,  31,  31,  31,  30,  30,  30,  (d)  Standard  meridian  of 
India  as  that  of  Banaras  or  Delhi,  (e)  Names  of  the  months 
should  be  the  Vedic  names,  viz.,  Tapas,  Tapasya  etc., 
( i )  Name  of  the  calendar  to  be  “Bharatiya  Saura  Kalayana.” 


REPORT  OF  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


35 


25.  Shri  Rambfaat  Jyotishi, 

C/o.  Messrs.  ■  A.  R.  Sivanagappa  &  Sons, 
Vag-vilas  Book  Depot,  Hubli. 

Letter  dated  31.  3.  53. 

Dfkka  (  correct  )  method  of  calculation  conflicts  with 
dharmasastra,  so  a  conference  of  all  pancahga  makers  may 
be  called  for  final  decision. 

26.  Shri  R.  L.  Narasimaya,  M.Sc.,  Lecturer  in 
Physics,  Central  College,  Bangalore. 

Letter  dated  26.  5.  53  from  Shri  S.  V.  Krishna  Moorthy 
Rao,  forwarding  two  articles  on  Indo- Aryan  Calendar. 

(i)  Correct  duration  of  sidereal  year  should  be  adopted 
in  place  of  Hindu  siddhSntie  sidereal  year,  (ii)  Solar  calendar 
should  be  sidereal,  (iii)  Lunar  months  should  be  coupled 
with  tropical  solar  months,  instead  of  sidereal  solar  months 
as  at  present,  (iv)  Lunar  months  commencing  from  new- 
moon  preceding  Me§ayana  should  be  named  Caitra. 
(v)  National  astronomical  observatories  with  latest 
equipments  should  be  established  at  several  places  in  India. 

27.  Shri  R.  N.  Apte,  M.A.,  LL.B.,  F.R.A.S. 

C.  S.  I.  R.  letter  dated  4.  5.  53  forwarding  an  article. 

Tithis  should  be  calculated  from  the  data  of  the  Nautical 
Almanac,  because  karapagranthas  do  not  give  correct  results. 

28.  Shri  P.  Rama  Kotaiah,  Narasaraopet,  (Andhra) 
Letters  dated  20.  4.  53  &  15.  8.  53. 

Advocates  adoption  of  Gandhian  era  : — 

(a)  Tear  commencing  from  15th  August,  (b)  Dates 
of  this  calendar  to  be  fixed,  (c)  Names  of  the  months  and 
number  of  days  of  the  months  to  be  as  follows  : — 

7th  Year 


Svatantriyam 

31  (First  month)  (15.  8.  53  to  14.  9.  53) 

Bharatlyam 

30 

(15.  9.  53  to  14.  10.  53) 

Khadiprobodham  31 

(15.  10.  53  to  14.  11.  53) 

Harijanadharanam  30 

(15.  11,  53  to  14.  12.  53) 

Margadarsakam 

31 

(15.  12.  53  to  L4.  1  54) 

Paramapadam 

31 

(15.  1.  54  to  14.  2.  54) 

U  the  jam 

28 

(15.  2.  54  to  14.  3.  54) 

Caitanyam 

31 

(15.  3.  54  to  14.  4.  54) 

Ahimsatmakam 

30 

(15.  4.  54  to  14.  5.  54) 

Matasahanam 

31 

(15.  5.  54  to  14.  6.  54) 

Satyagraham 

30 

(15.  6.  54  to  14.  7.  54) 

^antimayam 

31 

(15.  7.  54  to  14.  8.  54) 

(d)  1st,  5th, 

9th, 

13th,  -17th,  21st  years  etc.  are  leap- 

years. 

29.  Shri  Hukum  Singh  Pansari,  Khari  Baoli,  Delhi. 

Letters  dated  11. 

5.  53, 

26.  5.  53,  etc. 

(i)  Gandhian 

era 

6,  1953-54, .  starting  from  30th 

January,  should  be  adopted  as  the  National  Era  of  India. 


(ii)  Names  of  the  months  and  number  of  days  of  each 
month  to  be  as  follows 

Gandhi  Martyrdom  30  days  (Jan.  30  to  Feb.  28) 


Khadi  Publicity 

31 

( 

March 

) 

Cottage  Industries 

30 

» 

( 

April 

i 

Hard  Labour 

31 

n 

( 

May 

) 

Service  to  Humanity 

30 

( 

June 

) 

Love  of  Universe 

31 

» 

( 

July 

) 

National  Independence 

31 

( 

August 

) 

Untouchable  Uplift 

30 

( 

September 

) 

Charka  Publicity 

31 

V 

( 

October 

) 

Non-violence 

30 

w 

( 

November 

i 

Co-operation 

31 

» 

( 

December 

) 

Realization  of  Truth 

29 

n 

( 

January  1-29  ) 

30.  Shri  Gopal  Balwant  Joshi,  Compiler,  Ghitrasala 
Panchanga,  Poona  &  Jotirvid  Laxman  Gopal 
Date,  Compiler,  Date  Panchang,  Sholapur. 


Letter  dated  28.  9.  53  (  Memorandum  ). 

(i)  Suggesting  to  co-opt  some  suitable  persons  from 
Grahalaghava  school  in  order  to  make  the  committee  fully 
representative. 

(ii)  For  civil  purposes  sayana  system  may  be  adopted 
commencing  the  year  from  the  vernal  equinox  day  but  for 
religious  purposes  nirayapa  reckoning  should  ,  be  adopted 
instead  of  sayana  system,  (iii)  The  starting  point  of  the 
nirayapa  zodiac  should  be  the  point  directly  in  front  of 
the  star  Citra  (  Spica  ).  (iv)  The  formula  for  leap-years 
with  $aka  year  should  be  worked  out.  (v)  Criticises 
the  adoption  of  constant  ayanamsa  for  religious  purposes. 

31.  Shri  Chhedilal  Jayeswal,  P.  O.  Vindhachal, 
Dist.  Mirzapur. 

Favours  adoption  of  Gandhian  era. 

32.  Shri  Arun  Kumar  Das,  22/3,  Ray  Street, 
Calcutta-20. 

Letter  dated  4.  12.  53. 

(i)  Length  of  the  year  should  be  365.2422  days,  (ii)  The 
beginning  of  the  year  should  be  from  21st  March  i.e.  V.E. 
day  when  the  month  of  Vaisakha  should  commence,  (iii)  The 
central  observatory  of  India  should  be  situated  at  Banaras 
and  also  some  other  observatories  in  some  different  parts 
of  India,  (iv)  The  beginning  of  the  day  should  be  from 
midnight,  (v)  Almanacs  which  give  incorrect  calculations 
should  be  banned  by  the  Government',  (vi)  The  era  to  be 
adopted  for  the  Indian  calendar  should  be  counted  from 
the  birth  time  of  Buddhadeva  or  from  the  time  of  BhSrata 
battle. 

33.  Shri  Anand  Prakash,  T/8,  Anand  Parbat, 
New  Delhi. 

Letter  dated  9.  12.  53. 

d)  'Spsti  Samvat'«1960§53Q§3  shopld  be  adopted  as  Qui} 
national  era  ;  for  facility  proposes  the  use  of  the  last 


36 


REPORT  OF  THE  CALENDAR  EEFOEM  COMMITTEE 


two  digits,  e.g.  53  instead  of  the  fall  number,  as  it  is 
identical  with  the  Christian  era.  (ii)  Naming  of  months — 
Caitra,  Vaisakha  etc.  (iii)  The  starting  of  the  year  should 
be  from  the  first  day  of  Caitra.  (iv)  The  month  should 
start  on  the  actual  day  of  samkranti  i.e.  when  the  sun 
enters  into  the  next  constellation. 

34.  Shri  Pidaparty  Krishnamurty  Sastry,  (  author 
of  Andhra  Patrika  Panchangam  ),  P.O.  Poda- 
gatlapalli.  Via  Tanuku,  Dist.  E.  Godavari. 

Letter  dated  21.  11.  53. 

(i)  The  first  day  of  the  lunar  month  in  which 
Minayana  falls,  be  taken  as  the  beginning  of  the  year  and 
the  same  is  the  first  day  of  Madhumasa.  (ii)  Names  of 
the  sayana  solar  months  to  be  as  follows  : — 


Madhu, 

Madhava, 

f^ukra, 

/ 

Suei, 

Nabha, 

Nabhasya, 

Isa, 

Urja, 

Saha, 

Sahasya, 

Tapa, 

Tapasya. 

35.  Shri  K.  Sankaran  Namboodiripad  Avl.,  Chief 
Computer,  Yogakshemam  Panchangam, 
Panchangam  Press,  Kunnamkulam  (T.C.  State). 

Letter  dated  30.  1.  54 

(i)  Kali  era  be  taken  instead  of  Saka  era  for  the 
calendar,  (ii)  Stresses  upon  the  fixation  of  the  zero 
ayanamsa  year,  (iii)  Cycle  of  naksatras  will  commence 
from  the  first  point  of  Mesa  and  not  from  the  V.E.  point, 
(iv)  Favours  standardization  of  months  with  30  and  31  days 
alternately  and  introduction  of  leap-years,  (v)  Supports  the 
recommendations  of  the  Committee  in  general. 

36.  Jyotishratna  Pandit  Raghunath  Sastri, ,  Princi¬ 
pal,  Astrological  Education  Course, 

140,  Shukrawar  Peth,  Poona-2. 

Letter  dated  11.  2.  54. 

(i)  Suggests  fixation  of  intercalary  months  according 
to  the  sayana  positions  of  the  Sun,  because  various  inter¬ 
calary  months  cause  differences  in  observance  of  festivals. 

37.  Shri  V.  P.  K.  Poduval,  “Jyothissadan’’ 

P.O.  Payyanur,  North  Malabar. 

Letter  dated  22.  3.  54. 

(i)  Supports  the  recommendations  of  the  Calendar 
Reform  Committee  made  at  its  first  meeting,  (ii)  The  year 
should  be  brought  back  by  23  days  as  this  error  is  causing 
mistakes  in  the  calculation  of  seasons. 

(iii)  Suggests  establishment  of  a  central  astronomical 
observatory  with  modern  instruments  and  apparatus 
including  ammonia  and  quartz  clocks,  (iv)  Steps  should 
be  taken  to  publish  an  Indian  Ephemeris  for  the  use  of 
the  almanac  makers,  the  Navy  and  the  Air  force. 


38.  Shri  Jagadish  Prasad  Srivastava,  B.Sc.  LL,B., 
2062,  Ladli  Katra,  Agra. 

Letter  dated  9.  3.  54. 

(i)  The  beginning  of  the  year  should  be  21st  March, 
when  the  day  and  night  are  equal  and  this  day  corresponds 
accurately  to  the  change  of  seasons,  (ii)  The  names  of  the 
months  should  be  as  follows  : — Prathama  (prathama  Yarga), 
Dvitiya  (Dvitiya  Yarga)  and  so  on,  being  the  Sanskrit 
equivalent  of  English  months  March,  April  etc.  (iii)  Suggests 
the  name  of  the  era  as  “Bharata  Era.” 

39.  Shri  Yeshawant  K.  Pradhan,  Sayan  Astronomi¬ 
cal  &  Astrological  Mandal,  Jyotirmala  Office, 
Shri  Hari  Building,  near  India  Garage,  Dadar, 
Bombay-14. 

Letter  dated  nil. 

I.  For  Civil  Calendar  : — 

(i)  The  year  should  begin  on  the  day  when  the  Sun  is 
in  conjunction  with  the  apparent  first  point  of  Aries, 
(ii)  The  length  of  the  year  should  be  365.2422  days.  For 
civil  purposes  the  first  3  years  would  be  of  365  days  and 
the  fourth  year  of  366  days,  (iii)  Salivahana  f^aka  may 
be  used  as  the  era.  (iv)  The  solar  month  should  begin 
on  the  day  when  the  Sun  enters  the  3 1st  degree  and  its 
multiples  beginning  from  the  vernal  equinox,  (v)  Length  of 
months  the  first  5  months  should  be  of  31  days  and  the 
remaining  7  months  of  30  days  for  the  ordinary  year  while 
first  6  months  should  be  of  31  days  and  the  remaining  6 
months  of  30  days  for  the  leap-year,  i.e.  the  year  of  366 
days,  (vi)  The  civil  day  should  commence  from  midnight. 

II.  For  Religious  Calendar  : — 

(i)  Religious  calendar  of  India  should  be  luni-solar. 
(ii)  Names  of  the  months  should  be  Caitra,  Vaisakha  etc., 
the  first  month  being  Caitra.  (iii)  Lunar  month  should  be 
reckoned  from  true  new-moon  to  true  new-moon.  (iv)  During 
the  period  covered  by  two  successive  new-moons,  the  Sun 
may  not  transit  over  any  multiple  of  30°  degrees  of  longitude 
in  some  cases,  and  in  such  cases  the  lunar  month  should  be 
termed  as  intercalary  month,  (v)  If  during  the  period 
covered  by  two  successive  new-moons  there  would  be 
two  ingresses  of  the  Sun,  in  such  a  case  the  name  of  the 
month  shall  be  determined  on  the  basis  of  the  second 
ingress,  the  one  on  the  basis  of  the  first  having  been  treated 
as  kfaya  month.  (vi)  Any  religious  festival  which  is 
principally  determined  by  naksatras  should  be  based  on  the 
tropical  naksatras  without  taking  into  account'  the  position 
of  fixed  stars,  (vii)  Religious  festivals  may  be  determined  in 
the  following  manner  :  — 

(a)  In  Northern  India,  with  reference  to  the  true 
sunrise  of  Delhi.  (b)  In  "Western  India,  with 
reference  to  the  true  sunrise  of  Bombay,  (c)  In 
Eastern  India,  with  reference  to  the  true  sunrise 
of  Calcutta,  (d)  In  Southern  India,  with  reference 
to  the  true  sunrise  of  Madras  .  (e)  In  Central  India, 
with  reference  to  the  true  sunrise  of  Nagpur. 


REPORT  OP  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


37 


(viii)  Indian  standard  time  should  be  followed  throughout, 
(ix)  Heliacal  rising  and  setting  of  planets  should  be  given 
for  every  parallel  of  latitude  commencing  from  6°  North  and 
for  the  meridian  of  82-j0  East  longitude  of  Greenwich. 

40.  Krishnaram  Valji  Bhatt,  Yeshawant  K. 
Pradhan,  and  Dattatraya  K.  Sule, 

Dadar,  Bombay-14. 

Letter  dated  3.  5.  54. 

(i)  The  initial  point  of  the  zodiac  cannot  be  anything 
else  but  the  vernal  equinox  (even  S.S.  gives  the  initial  point 
as  vernal  equinox),  (ii)  Length  of  the  year  should  be  365.2422 
days,  (iii)  Say  ana  system  should  be  accepted  for  our 
religious  and  other  rites,  (iv)  If  any  attempt  is  made  to 
fix  the  amount  of  ayanamsa  from  the  fixed  stars  as  given 
in  the  S.  S.,  there  will  be  27  kinds  of  ayanamsas  and  no  two 
of  them  will  agree,  so  it  is  futile  to  determine  the 
ayanamsa  from  the  S.  S. 

41.  Memorandum  of  the  Sayana  Astronomical  and 
Astrological  Mandal,  Bombay.  Received 
from  : — 

(1)  Shri  M.D.  Sagona,  M.  A.,  LL.B.,  I.A.S.,  Retd.  Deputy 
Commissioner,  Raman  Nivas,  Rukmini  Nagar,  Amaravati, 
Madhya  Pradesh,  date’d  28.  5.  53, 

(2)  Jyotisacharya  D.  N.  Roy,  634  Shukrwar  Peth, 
Poona-2,  dated  28.  5.  53, 

(3)  Pdt.  Krishnaram  Babaji,  Bombay-2,  dated  nil, 

(4)  Shri  V.  G.  Kulkarni,  Vice-President,  Astrological 
Bureau,  Kolhapur,  Siddheswar  Jyotish  Karyalaya,  Kolhapur, 
dated  nil, 

(5)  Capt.  K.  V.  Mangaoker,  Medical  Officer,  P.  O. 
Kumta,  Karwar, 

(6)  Shri  H.  D.  Sagoma,  Headmaster,  Model  High  School, 
P.  0.  Arvi,  Wardha  (M.  P-), 

(7)  Shri  P.  Y.  Killekar,  6/12,  Neruroji  Road,  Lower 
Colaba,  Bombay-5, 

(8)  Shri  Yeshawant  K.  Pradhan,  Bombay-14, 

(9)  Shri  Krishnaram  Valji  Bhatt,  95  Narayanji  Sanji 
House,  Canal  Street,  Bombay-2, 

and  11  others. 

In  addition  to  the  suggestions  made  in  No.  39,  above 
the  following  further  suggestions  have  also  been  offered. 

(i)  Zero  ayanamsa  should  be  taken  in  each  year,  and  the 
vernal  equinoctial  day  be  the  beginning  of  the  year. 

(ii)  Tropical  and  not  the  sidereal  year  should  be  the 
basis  of  reckoning. 

(iii)  The  intercalary  month  should  be  determined  by 
the  Sun’s  entry  into  sayana  signs  occuring  during 
the  lunar  months. 

(iv)  Sayana  planetary  positions  and  sayana  calculations 
alone  must  be  taken  for  the  religious  pancangas. 

(v)  The  celestial  geocentric  longitudinal  conjunction  of 
the  sun,  the  moon  and  the  planet  with  junction 
stars  must  bo  mentioned  in  the  pancanga. 


(vi)  Basis  of  the  seasonal  rites  and  ceremonies  should  be 
changed  from  Caitradi  lunar  month  .to  Madhu- 
Madhavadi  lunar  month. 

42.  Shri  Baldeva  Misra,  K.  P.  Jayaswal  Research 
Institute,  Patna. 

Letter  dated  3.  5.  54. 

(i)  For  all  religious  purposes  tithi,  nak§atra,  yoga  and 
longitudes  of  the  Sun  and  Moon  should  be  calculated  according 
to  the  old  system  and  not  according  to  the  (modem)  Almanac 
system,  for  simple  reason  that  our  religion  is  based  on  the 
words  of  the  ancient  sages  and  r$is.  (ii)  Nirayapa 
calculation  should  be  accepted,  (iii)  An  observatory  should 
be  established,  (iv)  The  advancement  of  science  should  be 
carried  out  giving  due  respect  to  sastras. 

43.  Pandit  Dwijapada  Goswami,  Secretary, 
Panchanga  Sodhana  Parisat,  102-3,  Bakul 
Bagan  Road,  Calcutta-25. 

Sending  a  Memorandum  dated  16.  4.  54  prepared  by  a 
sub-committee  consisting  of  Pt.  Haricharan  Smrititirtha 
Vidyaratna,  Bhatpara,  Pt.  Sasthi  Charan  Bhattacharya  of 
B.S.  Panjika,  Calcutta,  Shri  Jatindra  Nath  Bhattacharya, 
editor,  Jyotirbijnan,  Calcutta,  Shri  Sudhibhusan  Bhatta¬ 
charya  M.A.,  Calcutta,  Pt.  Dwaresh  Chandra  Sarmacharya 
M.A.,  Calcutta  and  the  Secretary. 

(i)  The  latest  astronomical  elements  should  be  adopted 
in  the  compilation  of  Indian  pancangas.  (ii)  The  calculation 
should  be  drk-siddha.  (iii)  The  Naksatra  cakra  which  is 
purely  a  sidereal  system  of  astronomy  and  is  being  followed 
in  India  for  at  least  the  last  4000  years,  should  not  be 
abandoned  in  the  compilation  of  pancangas.  (iv).  The 
ayanamsa  of  the  pre-siddhantic  period  which  was  used  in 
the  Vedic  period  and  in  the  glorious  period  of  Hindu  civiliza¬ 
tion  should  be  accepted,  (v)  The  Citrapaksa  be  adopted  in 
the  pancangas.  (vi)  According  to  Citrapakfa,  23°  15' 
ayanamsa  should  be  accepted  for  the  year  1956.  (vii)  Rece¬ 
ding  back  of  the  equinoxes  should  not  be  stopped  artificially 
as  it  will  no  doubt  be  completely  opposed  to  our  Gastric 
traditions,  (viii)  TJttarayapa  should  start  from  the  actual 
date  i.e.  Dec.  23  instead  of  Jan.  14  as  it  is  now  followed. 

(ix)  The  festivals  which  developed  after  the  Vedic  period  are 
not  necessary  to  be  observed  in  the  seasonal  months. 

(x)  The  criterion  of  AijtamI  Rohini  in  commemorating  the 
birth  day  of  Lord  Krspa  should  be  followed,  though  it  may 
go  out  of  the  rainy  season,  (xi)  The  tropical  year  which  is 
being  followed  in  certain  religious  festivals,  should  start 
from  the  V.  E.  point  and  not  from  23°  15'  ahead  of  the 
V.  E.  point,  (xii)  The  sidereal  names  of  the  months  cannot 
be  used  with  the  tropical  year.  For  the  tropical  year, 
the  names  Madhu,  Madhava  etc.  or  Prathama,  Dvitiya 
etc.  should  be  used.  (xiii)  The  dates  of  the  sidereal 
solar  months  should  be  standardized,  (xiv)  The  sidereal 
year  will  have  12  months  commencing  from  Vai&ikha, 
and  general  festivals  should,  however,  be  linked  with  the 
sidereal  year. 


38 


BEPOBT  OF  THE  CALENDAR  BEFOBM  COMMITTEE 


44.  Shri  P.  L.  Bhagvat,  846  Sadashiv  Pcth,  &  Shri 
N.  S.  Gokhale,  346  Somwar  Pcth,  Poona-2. 

Letter  dated  14.  5.  54. 

(i)  The  vernal  equinoctial  point  should  be  the  starting 
point  of  the  year.  The  year  should  be  tropical,  consisting 
of  365.2422  days,  (ii)  The  calendar  should  contain  Tithi, 
Nak$atra,  Yoga  &  Karapa  (if  necessary)  and  exact  time  of 
the  conjunction  of  the  Moon  with  the  1st  and  2nd  magnitude 
stars,  (iii)  Against  the  idea  of  taking  23°  15'  ayanamsa 
ahead  of  the  Y.  E.  point,  (iv)  Against  the  nirayana  system 
for  the  following  reasons  : — 

(a)  The  authors  of  the  different  Siddhantas  could  not 
fix  the  initial  point  for  nirayana  calculation. 

(b)  Longitudes  of  some  fixed  stars  as  found  in  the 
Surya  Siddhanta  do  not  yield  the  location  of  the 
starting  point. 

(c)  At  present  the  days  and  nights  are  not  equal  on 
the  equinox  days  according  to  the  present  nirayapa 
pancangas. 

(d)  There  is  no  satisfactory  proof  in  our  sastras 
that  our  religious  festivals  are  based  on  nirayana 
system. 

(e)  The  zero  year  of  the  Hindu  zodiac  is  different  in 
different  pancangas. 

45.  Shri  Kashiram  Sharma,  Secretary,  Jyotisha 
Sammelana  (4th),  Upper  India,  Ambala  Cantt. 

Letter  datod  7.  6.  ‘54  intimating  the  recommendations  of 

the  conference. 

(i)  The  new  calendar  to  be  prepared  should  be  on 
Indian  system  and  the  important  factors  of  the  Pancanga  i.e. 
lunar  days  and  asterisms  etc.  should  be  computed  purely 
according  to  Surya  Siddhanta,  so  that  there  shQuld  be 
uniformity  in  the  pancangas  all  over  India  and  there 
should  be  no  confusion  in  the  observances  of  national 
festivals  etc.  (ii)  The  long.  82°  30'  E.  of  Greenwich 
adopted  as  the  standard  meridian  of  India  should  be 
changed  to  75°  E.  to  be  in  conformity  with  ancient  practices 
which  will  not  in  any  way  interfere  with  the  universally 
accepted  and  prevalent  zonal  time  covention.  (iii)  This 
conference  demands  from  the  Union  Govt,  that  funds  should 
be  provided  to  start  as  many  astronomical  observatories  as 
possible  to  promote  the  study  of  Jyoti$a,  during  the  next 
five  years.  In  these  observatories  Indian  astronomers 
well  versed  in  Sanskrit  and  Hindu  astronomy  should  be 
treated  at  par  with  modem  astronomers.  The  central 
observatory  should  be  situated  at  Ujjain  or  Kurukgetra. 
(iv)  To  promote  and  encourage  study  of  Jyotifa,  it  is  desirable 
to  start  a  Central  College-cum  Besearch  Institute  and  a 
Central  Library  of  Jyotisa.  In  this  college  arrangements 
should  be  made  to  teach  Jyotisa  with  all  its  allied  subjects  . 
on  scientific  lines. 


46.  Shri  Manubhai  P.  Shukla,  180/1,  Kocharal 
P.  O.  Anandanagar,  Ahmedabad. 

Letters  dated  12.  6.  54  &  19.  6.  54. 

(i)  Prefers  fixed  zodiac  system  for  lunar  calculations, 
(ii)  Beligious  rites  should  be  performed  according  to  lunar 
month,  (iii)  A  uniform  calendar  in  India  is  desirable. 

47.  Shri  Kshitish  Chandra  Chatterjee,  M.  A 
D.  Litt.,  81,  Shyambazar  Street,  Calcutta-4. 

Letter  dated  21.  8.  54  forwarding  a  pamphlet  from  Shri 
Bamacharan  Tarkatirtha  Nyayacharya,  Professor,  Hindu 
University,  Banaras,  Shri  Narayan  Chandra  Smrititirtha, 
Shri  Kalipada  Jyotisastri,  M.  Sc.,  Shri  Ramrupa  Vidyabagisa 
of  Bhatpara,  MM.  Bireswar  Tarkatirtha  of  Burdwan,  MM. 
Bames  Chandra  Tarkatirtha,  Shri  Tripathanath  Smrititirtha 
of  Navadwip,  MM.  Kalipada  Tarkacharya,  etc.  of  Calcutta. 

(i)  For  civil  purposes  22nd  March  may  be  adopted  as 
the  beginning  of  the  year  but  for  religious  purposes  year 
beginning  should  be  followed  according  to  the  different 
conventions  of  the  States,  (ii)  The  recommendation  for 
starting  the  calculation  for  religious  purposes  23°  15'  ahead 
of  the  V.  E.  point  cannot  be  accepted,  as  the  equinoxes  are 
not  fixed,  (iii)  Supports  the  recommendation  for  preparing 
a  National  Calendar  for  the  whole  of  India  and  for  establi¬ 
shing  a  National  Observatory  with  modem  equipments, 
(iv)  Disapproves  the  inclusion  of  tithis  and  natojatras  in 
the  National  Calendar,  (v)  For  religious  purposes  the 
duration  of  a  tithi  must  not  exceed  65  dandas  and  must  not 
fall  short  of  54  dandas.  (vi)  The  calculation  of  tithis  and 
naksatras  should  be  done  according  to  the  Siddhantas  of 
India,  (vii)  To  determine  the  months,  dates  and  time  for 
religious  duties,  calculation  should  be  made  from  SSrya 
Siddhanta  on  ni  ray  a  pa  basis  commencing  from  the  fixed 
“First  point  of  Aries”  in  the  zodiac  with  fixed  length  of  the 
solar  year  viz.,  365.2587  days. 

48.  Hony.  Secretary,  Jyotirvidya  Mandal, 

3/25  Contractor’s  Building,  Girgaon,  Bombay. 

Letter  dated  6.  9,  54. 

Forwarding  resolutions  adopted  at  the  Brihan  Maha- 
rastra  Jyotish  Parishad  conference,  Jalgaon,  held  on  3rd, 
4th  &  5th  July,  1954. 

(1)  Disapproval  : — The  decision  of  the  Calendar  Reform 
Committee  of  the  Government  of  India,  to  fix  23°  15'  as  the 
fixed  ayanamsa  is  unscientific  and  would  produce  great 
confusion  in  future  in  religious  matters,  which  are  fixed 
in  accordance  with  naksatras  and  would  produce- irreligious¬ 
ness  and  harm  to  religious  practice  and  religious  culture. 
The  precession  of  equinoxes  should  be  taken  into  account 
every  year  while  determining  the  ending  moments  of 
nak?atras  and  the  luni-solar  calendar  be  compiled  accordingly. 

(2)  Approval : — With  respect  to  the  other  items  proposed 
by  the  Committee  e.g.  Jsalivahana  Saka  and  the  Caitradi 
beginning  of  tropical  solar  year  etc.  are  acceptable. 


PART  B. 


REFORMED  EALENDAR  OF  INDIA 

for  tlie  five  years 

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(  1954-55  to  1958-59  A.D. ) 


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For  SAKA  ERA  1876  (1954-55  A.D.)  Simha  :  Nabhasya  Ayanamsa  on  1st =23°  13'  37* 

Month  of  S  R  A  V  ANA  (31  Days  )  Rains  2nd  Month 


C  45  ] 


REFORMED  CALENDAR  OF  INDIA 

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FOR  &AKA  ERA  1876  (1954-55  A.D.)  Tula  :  Orja  AyanSibaa  on  l»t-28°  IS*  45' 

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C  47  ] 


N.B. — All  timings  are  given  in  I.  S.  T.  or  the  looal  time  of  the  meridian  of  82$°  R  T^ng 


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AU  timing*  are  given  in  I.  S.  T'  or  the  local  time  of  the  meridian  of  82}°  B.  Long 


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For  SAKA  ERA  1878  (1956-57  A.D.)  Mina  :  Madhu  Ayanamsa  on  lst=23°  15'  451 

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REFORMED  CALENDAR  OF  INDIA 

FOR  SAKA  ERA  1879  (1957-58  A.D.)  Dhanuh  :  Sahasya  Ayanamsa  on  1st  =  23°  16'  17' 

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REFORMED  CALENDAR  OF  INDIA 

FOR  SAKA  ERA  1879  (1957-58  A.D.)  Makara  :  Tapas  Ayanamsa  on  1st  =  23’  16'  22' 

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REFORMED  CALENDAR  OF  INDIA 

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W.B. — All  timings  are  given  in  I.  S.  T.  or  the  local  time  of  the  meridian  of  82|°  E.  Long.. 


REFORMED  CALENDAR  OF  INDIA 

FOR  SAKA  ERA  1880  (  1958-59  A.D. )  Mithuna  :  £>uci  Ayanaihsa  on  1st  =  28°  16'  40‘ 

Month  of  JY  AISTHA  (JYESTHA)  (31  Days)  Summer  2nd  Month 


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REFORMED  CALENDAR  OF  INDIA 

FOR  SAKA  ERA  1880  (1958-59  A.D.)  Mina  :  Madhu  Ayanarhsa 'on  1st  =  23°  17  *  16' 

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General  Rules  for  Religious  Festivals 


The  general  rules  that  have  been  followed  in  the  fixation  of  dates  of  different  religious  festivals 
in  the  Calendar,  are  given  in  the  appended  list.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  make  it  as  comprehensive  as 
possible  by  including  the  conventions  of  all  the  different  States  as  far  as  practicable.  The  well  known 
book  'An  Indian  Ephemeris’  by  Swamikannu  Pillai  has  been  of  immense  help  in  this  respect.  Other 
renowned  works,  such  as  'Niryaya  Sindhu,  Dharma  Sindhu,  Vaidyanatha  l)lk$itlyam,  Tithitatvam,  UtkalakaliM,, 
Tantras  and  Puranas,  etc.,  have  been  followed  in  fixing  the  dates  of  the  festivals  and  in  preparing  the  list.  It 
may,  however,  be  mentioned  in  this  connection  that  the  rules  followed  in  the  observance  of  religious  rites  in 
different  parts  of  India  and  among  different  sects  of  the  Hindu  community  are  so  divergent  in  nature  that 
the  formulation  of  any  common  rule  for  all  India  use  is  difficult.  But  with  a  view  to  securing  uniformity, 
attempts  have  been  made  where  possible,  to  lay  down  general  rules  for  festivals  based  on  the  above 
mentioned  religious  books. 

Most  of  the  festivals  are  determined  on  the  basis  of  the  lunar  (i.e.  luni-solar)  calendar,  which  are 
therefore  shown  first.  There  are  certain  festivals  which  are  based  purely  on  the  solar  calendar.  The 
criteria  for  determining  the  dates  of  such  festivals  are  given  later. 

The  festivals  are  arranged  according  to  the  amanta  (i.e.  new-moon  ending)  lunar  months  commencing 
"from  Caitra  &ukla.  The  numbers  relate  to  the  tithi  with  the  pak?a  (S  means  &ukla  pakya,  and  K  Kpqiia  yah} a). 

As  regards  the  hour  of  the  day  in  which  a  religious  festival  is  to  be  performed,  the  prescribed  time 
is  noon  ( madhyUhna )  or  fore-noon  (purvahna)  except  in  case  of  some  festivals  for  which  the  prescribed 
periods  are  different  from  the  general  rule.  Here  noon  or  madhyahna  relates  to  the  period  of  time  from 
24  minutes  (one  ghaiflka)  before  mid-day  upto  the  same  time  after  it.  This  is  the  most  appropriate  time. 
If  this  time  is  not  covered  by  the  lithi  on  any  day,  the  festival  is  to  be  observed  on  the  succeeding  day  of 
the  tithi.  Sometimes  the  madhyahna  is  taken  to  represent  a  wider  period  than  the  above,  viz.,  the  7th,  8th 
and  9th  muhUrtas  of  the  day  commencing  from  sunrise,  a  michnrta  being  *Vth  part  of  the  day-time.  In 
Bengal,  where  however  a  different  rule  is  fallowed,  the  requisite  tithi  must  cover  at  least  one  muhurta  of 
purvdhiyi  of  the  day  i.e.,  of  the  first  *rd  part  of  the  day-time.  If  the  tithi  does  not  cover  such  a  period  on 
any  day,  then  purvahya  will  have  to  be  taken  to  represent  the  period  from  sunrise  to  mid-day.  In  cases 
where  the  prescribed  hours  of  the  day  for  the  festivals  are  different  from  the  general  rule,  the  required 
periods  to  be  covered  by  the  tithi  have  been  specially  mentioned  in  the  list  in  most  cases. 

When  the  requisite  tithi  covers  the  prescribed  time  on  two  successive  days,  the  festival  is  to  be 
-observed  in  such  a  case  on  the  first  day  where  marked  ‘ Purvaviddhd,,  and  on  the  second  day  where  marked 
4 ParaviddhS,’ .  Further  explanations  of  terms  have  been  given  later. 


102 


REPORT  OF  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


Lunar  Festivals 


CAITRA 

S  1  Navaratrarambha  (  paraviddha  ). 

S  3  Dolotsava,  Gaurl  trtlya,  t  Andolana  trtlya, 
Saubhagya  sayana  vrata  (paraviddha),  Sarhul 
,  (  Bihar  ). 

S  5  Sri  pancaml  or  Lak§ml  pancaml  (  pQrvaviddha  ). 

S  6  Asoka  §a§tbl  ( Beng. )  ( paraviddha  ),  Skanda 
§a§thl  (  Orissa  ). 

S  7  VasantI  paja  (  Bengal )  (  paraviddha  ),  Oli  begin¬ 
ning  (  Jain — eight  days  before  full-moon  ). 

S  8  AnnapQrija  paja  (Beng.)  (  paraviddha  ),  BhavSni- 
utpatti  (  paraviddha  ),  A&oka§tamI  (  Special 
when  combined  with  naks.  Punarvasu  and 
Wednesday,  after  mid-day  ). 

S  9  RamanavamI  (  madhyahnavyapinl,  special  with 
Punarvasu  naks.  ),  Rama  jayanti. 

S  10  Dharmaraja  dasaml. 

S  11  Kamada  ekadasi,  Dolotsava. 

S  12  Damanotsava,  Vamana  dvadasl,  Madana 
dvadasl. 

S  13  Ananga  trayodasl  (  pOrvaviddha  ),  Mahavira 
jayanti  (  Jain  ). 

S  14  Madanabhanjl ,  (Bengal  &  Orissa)  (para¬ 
viddha  ),  Sivadamanaka  caturda&I,  Vi$iju- 
damanaka  caturdasl  (  paraviddha  ). 

S  15  Caitri  pGujima  (paraviddha),  Hanumat  jayanti, 
Oli  ending  (  Jain  ). 

K  11  VarQthini  ekadasi. 


V  AISAKHA 

S  3  Ak§aya  trtlya  (  pQrvahxja  vyapini,  paraviddhg  ) 
( Special  when  combined  with  Rohii)l 
nak§atra  and  Wednesday),  Candanayatra, 
Parasurama  jayanti  (  prado§avyapini — if 
occurs  on  two  successive  days,  the  second 
,  day  is  to  be  observed  ). 

S  5  Sankara  jayanti. 

S  6  Candana  $a§thl  (  Bengal )  (  paraviddha  ). 

S  7  Gangotpatti,  (  madhyahna  vyapini,  if  occurs  on 
two  successive  days,  the  first,day  is  to  be 
observed  ),  Jahnu  saptami,  Sarkara  saptami. 

S  9  Sltanavaml  (  Bengal  &  Orissa )  (  madhyahna 
vyapini ). 

S  11  Mohini  ekadasi,  Lakjminarayapa  ekadasi 
(  Orissa  ). 

S  12  Parasurama  dvadasl  (  pQrvaviddha ),  Rukmiiji 
dvadasl  (  pQrvaviddha  ),  Pipitaki  dvadasl 
(  Bengal )  (  paraviddha  ). 

S  14  Nrsimha  caturdasl  (  prado?a  vyapini — if  it 
occurs  on  two  successive  days,  the  second  day 
is  to  be  observed,  special  when  combined 
with  nak$atra  ‘Svatl’,  yoga  'Siddhi’  and 
'Saturday’ ). 

S  15  Sampat  gaurl  vrata  (  paraviddha ),  Phuladola 
(  Bengal  &  Orissa  )  (  paraviddha  ),  Gandhe- 
£vari  pQja  (  Bengal )  (  pQrvaviddha  ), 

Buddha  pQrijima,  Vaisakhl  pQrxjima. 

K  8  Trilocan3§tamI  (  Bengal ), 

K  11  Apara  ekadasi,  Jalakilcja.  ekadasi  (  Orissa  ). 

K  14  Savitri  caturdasl  (  pradoja  )  (  Bengal ). 

K  30  Vata-savitrl  vrata,  Savitri  amavasya  (  Orissa  ), 
Phalahariiji  Kalika  pQja  (  Bengal )  (  nisitha 
vyapini ). 


JYAISTHA  (  Jyejtha  ) 

S  1  Dasahara  snanarambha  (-lasting  for  ten  days  ). 

S  3  Rambha  trtlya  (  pQrvaviddha  ). 

S  4  Uma  caturthi  (  Bengal  &  Orissa  )  (  paraviddha  ). 

S  5  Mahadeva  vivaha  (  Orissa  ). 

S  6  Arapya  ?agthl,  Araijya  gaurl  vrata,  (paraviddha), 
Skanda  $a$thl,  (  pQrvaviddha  ),  Sitala  §a5thl 
yatra  (  Orissa  ) 

S  10  Ganga  dasahara  (  special  when  combined  with 
nak$atra  ‘Hasta’,  yoga  Wyatipata’,  karaija 
‘Gara’  and  Tuesday  ). 

S  11  Nirjala  ekadasi,  Devavivaha  ekadasi  (  Orissa  ). 
Rukmii)!  vivaha  (  Orissa  ). 

S  12  Sri  Rama  dvadasl  (  pOrvaviddha  ),  Campaka 
dvadasl  (  Orissa  )  (  pQrvaviddha  ). 

S  14  Campaka  caturdasl  (  Bengal )  (  paraviddha  ). 

S  15  Vata-savitrl  vrata  (Deccan)  (  pradogavyapini, 
pQrvaviddha  )>  SnanayStra  (  Bengal  &  Orissa  ) 
(  paraviddha  ). 

K  11  Yoginl  ekadasi. 

ASADHA 

S  2  RathayAtra  (  paraviddha,  special  when  com¬ 
bined  with  nak§atra  ‘Pu?ya’  ),  Manoratha 
dvitlya  ( it  is  to  be  observed  only  when 
the  tithi  touches  both  day  and  night 
.  on  the  date  of  observance  when  the  inoon 
becomes  visible  ), 

S  5  Skanda  pancaml  (  paraviddha  ). 

S  6  Kumara  §a§thi,  Herapancami  (Orissa),  Kardama 
gajthi  (  Bengal  )  (  paraviddha  ). 

S  7  Vivasvat  saptami  (  pQrvaviddha  ). 

S  8  Parasurama§tami  (  Orissa ),  Kharci  pQja 
(  Tripura  ). 

S  10  Punaryatra  (on  the  ninth  day  from  Rathayatra). 

S  11  Hari(ayani  ekada&l.  Ravin  arayai>a  ekadasi 
(  Orissa  ). 

S  12  Vi$i>u  sayanotsava,  Srlkr$ija  dvadasl,  Gopadma- 
vratarambha. 

S  14  Caumasi  caudas  (  Caturmasya  caturdasl )  ( Jain ), 
Sivasayana  caturdasl  (  Orissa  ). 

S  15  Guru  pQrijima  (  paraviddha  ),  Vyasa  pQja 
( paraviddha,  3  muhQrtas  after  sunrise ), 
Kokila  vrata  (  sayahna  vyapini ). 

Siva  sayanotsava  (  pradogavyapini  ). 

K  2  AsQnya  sayana  vrata  (candrodaya  vyapini ; 

pQrvahija  vyapini  and  pQrvaviddha  in  Bengal). 

K  5  Nsga  pancaml  (  Bengal  )  (  pQrvaviddha  ). 

K  7  Sitala  saptami  (  Orissa  ). 

K  11  Kamika  ekada&I. 

K  30  CitSu  amavasya  ( Orissa ),  Karkataka  vavu 
(  T.C.  State — in  saura  Sravaija  ). 


GENERAL  RULES  FOR  RELIGIOUS  FESTIVALS 


103 


srAvana 

S  3  MadhusravS  (  Gujerat )  (  paraviddha  ). 

S  5  Naga  pancaml  (  paraviddha  ), 

Jagratgauri  pancaml  (  Orissa  )  (  ratrivySpinl  ). 

S  6  Lup^hana  gagthl  (  Bengal )  (  paraviddhs  ). 

S  11  Putrada  ekSdasI,  Jhulanayatra  (  pradogavyapini 
or  pQrvahpavyapinl ). 

S  12  Buddha  dvadasl,  Damodara  dvadasl  (  purva- 
viddha  ),  Vigpu-pavitr3ropapa. 

S  13  Akhetaka  trayodasl  (  Orissa  ). 

S  14  Siva  pavitraropapa  (  Orissa  )  (  ratrivyapinl  ). 

S  15  Rakhi  pQrpima,  Naroli  pQrpima  ( Cocoanut 
day  ),  Rakga  Bandhana  ( in  the  second 
half  of  purpima ),  Rgi  tarpapa  (madhyahna 
vyapini  ),  Hayagriva  utpatti,  Jhulanayatra 

_  samapana,  Balabhadra  pQja  (  Orissa  ). 

Avapi  Avittam  (  South  India  ) — But  in  some 
places,  on  the  day  of  Dhanigtha  nakgatra 
falling  on  S  14  or  15  ;  if  Dhanigtha  is  not 
available  before  K  1,  it  is  to  be  observed 
on  the  day  of  Dhanigtha  nakgatra  of  the 
next  month. 

Upakarma  (  Samgavavyapinl  i.e.  S  15  covering 
4th,  5th  and  6th  muhtlrtas  ) — (1)  For  Rgvedis, 

it  is  to  be  observed  on  the  day  of  Sravapa 
nakgatra  falling  on  S  14,  S  15  or  K  1. 

(2)  For  Yajurvedis— if  samkramapa  or  eclipse 
occurs  on  the  day,  or  Jupiter  or  Venus  be 
heliacally  set,  then  it  is  to  be  observed  in 
Bhadrapada  pQrpima  and  if  that  is  also 
objectionable,  it  is  to  be  observed  in 
AgacJha  pQrpima, 

K  2  AlGnyasayana  vrata  (  Dvitlya  current  at  moon- 
rise  j  if  occurs  on  two  successive  days, 
it  is  to  be  observed  on  the  second  day  ). 

K  3  Kajjall  trtlya,  (  paraviddha  ),  Angaveta  trtlya 
(  Orissa  ). 

K  4  Bahula  caturthl  ( Madhyadesa  )  (  Sayahna- 
vyapinl  :  if  occurs  on  two  successive  days, 
it  is  to  be  observed  on  the  1st  day  ). 

K  5  Rakga  pancaml  (  Orissa  )  (  pQrvaviddha  ). 

K  6  Hala  gagthl  (  paraviddha  ). 

K  7  Sltala  saptaml  (  pQrvaviddha  ). 

K  8  Janmagtaml  (  madhyaratra-vyapinl),  if  midnight 
is  covered  on  two  days,  or  not  on  any  day, 
it  is  to  be  observed  on  the  2nd  day  ;  special 
when  combined  with  nakgatra  ‘Rohipl’  at 
midnight,  more  so  when  on  Monday  or 

Wednesday.  If  the  combination  occurs 
before  midnight  and  ‘Rohipl’  extends  up  to 
midnight,  it  is  to  be  observed  on  that  day. 
Gokulagtml. 

For  Vai^iiavas  :  It  is  to  be  observed  next  to  the 
day  of  saptaml. 

In  As, saw  and  S.  India  :  It  is  to  be  observed  in 

Sravaija  K  8  or  Bhadra  K  8  falling  in  the 
month  of  saura  Bhadrapada.  In  S.  India 
some  observe  in  Rohipl  nak§atra. 

K  11  Aja  ekadasl. 

K  12  Paryusapa  parvarambha  (  Jain-pancaml  pakja  ) 
—Eight  days  before  Samvatsari. 

K.14  Aghora  caturdasl  (  pradoga  vyapini ). 

K  30  Pithori  amavasya,  Aloka  amavasya,  Saptapurl 
aihavasya  (  Orissa  ),  Kusagrahaija. 


BHADRAPADA 

S  1  Rudra  vrata  (  pQrvaviddha  ). 

S  3  Haritalika  vrata  (  paraviddha  ),  Gaurl  vrata 
(  Orissa  ),  Gaurl  (  Mysore  ) 

S  4  Varada  caturthl  ( pQrvaviddha,  madhyahna- 
vyapinl),  Samvatsari  parva  (  Jain-caturthi 
pakga  ),  Saubhagya  caturthl  (Bengal),  Gaijesa 
caturthl  ( madhyahna  vyapini  and  pQrva¬ 
viddha  ),  Haritall  caturthl  ( S  4  of  saura 
Bhadra  ),  Sarasvati  pQja  (  Orissa  ). 

S  5  R§i  pancaml  (  madhyahnavyapinl ) — If  occurs 
on  two  successive  days,  it  is  to  be  observed 
according  to  Madhava  on  the  1st  day  and 
according  to  Hemadri  and  Divodasa  on  the 
2nd  day  ;  Rakga  pancaml  (  Bengal  ),  Guru 
pancaml  (  Orissa  ),  Samvatsari  parva  (  Jain- 
pancaml  pakga  ). 

S  6  Surya  gagthl  (  paraviddha ),  Lolarka  gagthl, 
Carpata  gagthl  &  Manthana  gagthl  (  Bengal  ), 
Campa  gagthl  (  when  combined  with  nakgatra 
Visakha  and  yoga  Vaidhrti  and  Tuesday  ), 
Somanatha  vrata  (  Orissa  ). 

S  7  Muktabharapa  vrata  (  pQrvaviddha ),  Lalita 
saptaml  (  Bengal  &  Orissa  ). 

S  8  Durvag^aml  ( pQrvaviddha — S  8  of  saura 

Bhadra  except  Bengal ),  Mahalakgmi  vrata- 
rambha,  RadhagtamI  (  madhyahna  vyapini ), 
Durga  sayanagtaml  (  Orissa  ). 

S  9  Aduhkha  navaml,  Nanda  navaml,  Tala  navaml 
(  Bengal  &  Orissa  )  (  pQrvaviddha  ). 

S  11  ParivartanI  ekadasl,  Vigpu  srnkhalayoga — when 
combined  with  nakg.  Sravapa  and  12th  tithi, 
Heikra  Hitomba  (Manipur),  Dol  gyaras  (M.  B.) 

S  12  Vigijuparivartanotsava,  Sakrotthana  ^(in  any  of 
the  nakgatras  U.  Agaclha,  Sravapa  & 
Dhanigtha),  Kalki  dvadasl,  Sravapa^  dvadasl 
(  when  combined  with  nakgatra  Sravapa  ), 
Vamana  jayantl(  madhyahna  vyapini). 

S  14  Ananta  caturdasl  ( covering  three  muhGrtas 
from  sunrise,  but  one  muhGrta  in  Bengal ). 

^  15  Indra-Govinda  puja  (  Orissa  )  (  pradoga  ). 

K  1  Mahalayarambha. 

K  2  Asunya  Dayana  vrata  (  vide  K  2  of  Sravapa  ). 

K  6  Candra  gagthl  (  Sagthl  current  at  moon-rise,  if 
occurs  on  two  successive  days,  it  is  to  be 
observed  on  the  first  day  ). 

Kapila  gagthl — when  combined  with  nakgatra 
RohinI,  yoga  Vyatlpata,  Sun  in  Hasta  and 
Tuesday. 

K  8  Mahalakgmi  vrata  samapana  (  current  at  moon- 
rise  ),  JitagtamI  (pradoga),  JlmQtavabana  pOja, 
Malagtaml  (  Orissa  ). 

K  9  Matr  navaml,  Avidhava  navaml,  Durga  navaml 
(  Maharashtra  ). 

K  ll  Indira  ekadasl. 

K  13  Magha  trayodasl  ( in  Magha  nakgatra  even  in 
malamasa).  Gajacchaya  when  Sun  in  Hasta 
nakg. ) 

K  30  Mahalaya  amavasya  (aparahpavygpinl) 


104 


REPORT  OF  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


AS  VINA 

S  1  Navaratrarambha  (paraviddha). 

S  4  Mana  caturthl  (Bengal  &  Orissa). 

S  5  Upanga-lalita  vrata  (Maharastra)  (purvaviddha, 
in  some  opinion  rltri  vyapinl),  Nata  pancaml 
(Orissa). 

S  6  Durga  gagthl,  Tapah  gagthl  (Orissa). 

S  7  DurgS  saptaml  (paraviddha) — covering  one 
muhQrta  from  sunrise,  Sarasvatl  sthSpana  (to 
be  observed  in  Mala  nakgatra,  not  necessarily 
in  S  7). 

Oli  beginning  (Jain) — Eight  days  before 
full-moon. 

S  8  Mahagtaml  (paraviddha),  Sarasvatl  pQjana  (to 
be  observed  in  nakgatra  P.  Aga(Jha) 

S  9  MahSnavaml  (pQrvaviddha)  (In  Bengal  it  is 
observed  as  paraviddha  covering  one 
muhQrta  from  sunrise). 

Sarasvatl  Balidana  (to  be  observed  in 
nakgatra  U.  Aga<Jha) 

S  10  Vijaya  dasaml  (In  Bengal  it  is  observed  as 
paraviddha,  covering  one  muhQrta  from 
sunrise.  In  other  places,  if  it  touches  Sravaija 
nakgatra  in  the  day  time  it  is  observed  on 
that  day),  Sarasvatl  visarjana  (to  be  observed 
in  nakgatra  Sravaija),  Dasahara. 

S  11  Pasankusa  (PapOnkusa)  ekadasl,  Bharat  Milap. 

S  12  Padmanava  dvadasl. 

S  15  Kojagarl  Lakgml  pQrijima  (pradoga  vyapinl)— (If 
occurs  on  two  successive  days,  it  is  to  be 
observed  on  the  second  day,  otherwise  on  the 
first  day),  Kumara  pQrijima  (Orissa),  Oli 
ending  (Jain). 

K  2  ASQnya  sayana  vrata  (vide  K  2  of  Sravaija). 

K  4  Karaka  caturthl  (current  at  moon-rise,  if 
occurs  on  two  successive  days,  it  is  to  be 
observed  on  the  first  day),  Dasarath’a  caturthl 
(Bengal)  (pradoga  vyapinl) — If  occurs  or  does 
not  occur  on .  two  days,  than  to  be 
observed  on  the  first  day. 

K  8  Ahoyl  agtaml  (  Gujerat )  (  current  at  moonrise), 
Karagtaml  (  Maharashtra  ).  If  occurs  on 
two  successive  days,  it  is  to  be  observed  on 
the  second  day. 

K  11  Rama  ekadasl. 

K  12  Govatsa  dvada£l  (pradojavySpinl).  If  occurs  on 
two  days,  it  is  to  be  observed  on  the  first 
day. 

K  13  Yama  dlpadana  (pradoga). 

K  14  Naraka  caturdasl  (covering  a  period  of  4 
gliatikas  before  sunrise,  if  occurs  on  two 
successive  days,  it  is  to  be  observed  on  the 
first  day),,  BhQta  caturdasl,  Dlpadana, 
-vSastrahata  caturdasl,  Hanumat  Janmadina. 

K  30  Kali  pQjS  (nislthavyapinl),  Dlpavall  or  Diwall 
(pradoga),  MahalakgmlpQja  (pradoga),  Kethar 
Gaurl  vrata  (S.  India),  Mahavlra  nirvaija 
Cain). 


KARTIKA 

S  1  Govardhana  pQja,  AnnakQta  [pQrvaviddha], 
Balidaityaraja  pQja  (pradoga),  DyQta  pratipad 
(purvahija). 

S  2  Bhratrdvitlya,  Yamadvitlya  (madhyahna,  pQrva¬ 
viddha),  MasyadhSra  (Dwat)  pQja  (  Bihar  ). 

S  3  Alocana  Gaurl  vrata  (paraviddha). 

S  4  Naga  caturthi  (paraviddha  and  madhyahna- 
vyapinl ). 

S  5  Jn8na  pancaml  (Jain). 

S  6  Nacjl  §a§thl,  Skanda  §a§thl  (Madras),  SQrya 
§a?thl,  Chhat  (Bihar). 

S  8  Gopa$taml,  Gojthas^aml. 

S  9  Ak?aya  navaml  (pQrvahqavyapinl),  Jagaddhatrl 
puja  (Bengal),  (udayavyapinl  one  muhQrta), 
Anla  navaml  (Orissa),  Durga  navaml  (pQrva¬ 
viddha),  Gaurl  vrata. 

S  11  Tulasi  vivaha,  Bhl§ma  pancaka,  Probodhani 
ekadasl. 

S  12  Probodhanotsava,  Narayaija  dvadasl,  Vrndavana 
dvadasl,  Garucja  dvadasl  (Orissa). 

S  14  Vaikuijtha  caturdasl  ( ratrivyapinl ),  CaumasI 
caudas  (Jain),  Batja  o§3  (Orissa). 

S  15  Rasayatra,  (nifohavyapinl,  i.e.  covering  a 
period  from  24  minutes  before  to  24  minutes 
after  midnight.  If  occurs  on  two  days  or 
does  not  occur  on  any  day,  it  is  to  be 
observed  on  the  second  day),  Pu§kar  Fair. 
Ratha  yatra  (Jain),  Tripurotsava  (evening), 
Kedara  vrata  (Orissa),  Kartikl  pQrijima. 

K  8  KalastamI  (ratrivyapinl,  paraviddha), 

Kalabhairava  jayantl,  Pratham3§taml  (Orissa). 

K  9  Kanji  Anla  navaml  (Orissa). 

K  11  Utpanna  (Utpatti)  ekadasl. 

K  30  Dlpavall  amavasya  (Orissa). 


MARGASIRSA 
S  1  Rudropavasa. 

S  5  Naga  pancaml  (  2nd  )  (  paraviddha  ). 

S  6  Campa  ga^hl  (  Maharashtra  )  (  paraviddha  ). 

(Special  when  combined  with  nakgatra 

Satabhigaj,  yoga  Vyatlpata  and  Sunday), 
Skanda  gagtjhl  (  purvaviddha  ),  Guha  gagthl, 
MllakarQpii)!  gagthL 
S  7  Mitra  saptaml  (  pQrvaviddha  ). 

S  11  Mokgada  (Mokga)  ekadasl,  Mauna  ekadasl  (Jain). 
S  12  Matsya  dvadasl,  AkhaijcJa  dvadasl  (paraviddha), 
Vyanjana  dvadasl  &  Dana  dvadasl  (  Orissa  ). 
S  14  Pagaija  caturdasl  (  Bengal  &  Orissa  )  ( In  saura 
Margaslrga,  night ). 

S  15  Dattatreyotpafti  (  pradoga  ). 

K  8  Popagtaka. 

K  10  Pauga  dasaml  (  Jain  ). 

K  11  Saphala  ekada&I. 

K  30  Vakula  amavasya  (  Orissa  ). 


GENERAL  RULES  FOR  RELIGIOUS  FESTIVALS 


105 


PAUSA 

S  6  AnnarapS  §a§thl  (  Bengal ). 

S  10  Samba  dasami,  Sorya  paja  (  Orissa  ). 

S  11  Putrada  ekadasl,  Vaikuijtha  ekadasl  (  Madras  ), 
( In  Saura  Pau$a  ). 

S  12  Karma  dvadasl. 

S  15  Pu§y3bhi§eka>  atra  (special  when  combined  with 
Pu§ya  nakjatra). 

K  8  Mamsa$taka. 

K  11  Sattila  ekadasl. 

K  13  Meru  trayodasl  (  Jain  ). 

K  14  Yama  tarparja  (covering  a  period  of  4  ghatikas 
before  sunrise),  RatantI  Kalika  pOja  (Bengal), 
(  pradogavyapinl  or  nislthavyapinl ). 

K  30  Mauna  amavasya  (  Uttar  Pradesh  ),  TriveijI 
amavasya  (Orissa),  Makara  vavu  (T.  C.  State). 
Ardhodaya  Yoga— When  combined  with 
nak$atra  Sravaija,  yoga  Vyatlpata  and  Sunday 
at  day-time. 

MAGHA 

S  4  Tila  caturthl  and  Kunda  caturthl  ( pradoga- 
vyapinl ),  Varada  caturthl  (Bengal  &  Orissa), 
Gaijesa  caturthl,  Gaijesa  jayantl  (madhyahna- 
vyapinl  parvaviddha). 

S  5  Sri  Pancaml  ( parvaviddha ),  Sarasvatl  paja 
( Bengal ),  Vasanta  pancaml,  Madana 
pancaml. 

S  6  Sltala  §a§thl  (  Bengal  ). 

S  7  Ratha  saptaml  (  covering  4  ghatikas  before 
sunrise  ),  Acala  saptaml,  Vidhana  saptaml, 
Arogya  saptaml  [  parvaviddha  ]. 

S  8  Bhl§ma§taml. 

S  9  Mahananda  navaml. 

S  11  Jaya  ekadasl,  BhaimI  ekadasl  (  Bengal  ). 

S  12  Bhl§ma  dvadasl  ( parvaviddha  ),  Amalakl 
dvadasl,  Santana  dvadasl,  Varaha  dvadast 

S  15  Maghl  pUrijima  ( paraviddha ),  Mahamdghi — 
When  Jupiter  and  Moon  in  nak§atra  Magha, 
Sun  in  Sravaija  and  Saturn  in  Me§a. 

Agnvutsava  (  night )  (Orissa). 


Magha — contd. 

K  8  Sakastaka,  Slta§taml  (Birth  day  of  Slta). 

K  11  Vijaya  ekadasl. 

K  14  Mahasivaratri  (  nislthavyapinl ) — In  some 

opinion  it  is  to  be  observed  on  nisltha  and  in 
some  opinion  on  prado?a.  If  occurs  on 
two  successive  nisithas  then  according  to 
Hemadri  it  is  to  be  observed  on  the  first  day 
and  according  to  Madhava,  to  be  observed 
on  the  second  day  ). 

PHALGUNA 

/ 

S  4  Santa  caturthl  (  paraviddha  )  (  Orissa  ). 

S  6  Gorapiijl  §a§thl  (  Bengal ). 

S  10  Phagu  dasami  (  Orissa  ). 

S  11  Amalakl  ekada&l. 

S  12  Nrsimha  dvadasl  ( It  is  called  Govinda  dvada&l 
when  combined  with  Pu§ya  nak$atra  ). 

S  14  Caumasl  caudas  (  Jain  ). 

S  15  Holika-dahana  (  Sayahnavyapinl — it  should  be 
observed  on  second  half  of  paripma 
at  night  ),  Dolayatra  ( Bengal  &  Orissa ) 
(  covering  4  ghatikas  before  sunrise  of 
the  day  of  festival ),  Holi — on  the  day  after 
Holikadahana. 

K  1  Vasantotsava  (  current  at  sunrise,  if  occurs 
on  two  successive  days,  it  is  to  be  observed 
on  the  first  day  ). 

K  5  Rahga  pancaml. 

K  6  Skanda  §a?thl  (  Bengal )  (  parvaviddha  ). 

K  8  Sltala§taml,  (  parvaviddha ),  VargltapBrambha 

(  Jain ). 

K  11  Papamocanl  ekadasl. 

K  13  Madhukrjija  trayodasl, 

(Varui)I,  when  combined  with  nak§atra 

Satabhi$aj  ;  Mahavaruijl,  when  combined 

with  nak$atra  Satabhijaj  and  Saturday  ; 

Mahamaha  VaruijI  when  further  combined 
/ 

with  yoga  Subha  ). 


Observance  of  Ekadasl — 

As  regards  Ekadaii,  there  are  various  rules  for  determining  the  date  for  fasting.  The  general  rule  prevalent 
in  most  part  of  India  is  that  it  is  to  be  observed  on  the  day  when  the  tithi  is  current  at  sunrise.  If  it  occurs  on 
two  successive  days,  it  is  to  be  observed  'on  the  second  day.  When  does  not  occur  on  any  day,  it  is  to  be 
observed  on  the  day  of  the  tithi,  but  widows  and  sannyasins  would  observe  on  the  next-day.  But  in  Bengal  in 
such  cases,  it  is  to  be  observed  on  the  succeding  day  by  all  i.e.,  the  day  of  combination  of  daSaml  with  ekadaii  is 
avoided.  The  Vaiqiyivas  avoid  such  combination  even  at  arutiodaya  (  4  gha\ikd,s  before  sunrise  ),  Nimbdrka 
Vaignavas  avoid  such  combination  even  after  the  preceding  midnight. 


106 


REPORT  OF  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


Solar  Festivals 


The  following  festivals  are  observed  according  to 
the  day  of  Sun’s  transit  into  rasis  (Ravi-samkramaija). 
For  this  purpose  the  day  has  been  taken  to  begin  from 
midnight,  i.e.,  when  the  samkramaija  takes  place  after 
midnight,  the  festival  relating  to  the  samkramaija  is 
to  be  observed  on  the  following  day. 

Me$adi  — Cacjaka  pQja  (Bengal),  Bahag  Bihu  (Assam), 
Cheiraoba  (Manipur),  Vi§u  (T.  C.  State), 
VaisSkhl  (on  the  samkramaija  day  commencing 
from  sunrise). 


Karkadi — Manasa  pQja  begins  (Bengal). 

Simhadi — Manasa  puja  ends  (Bengal).  This  is  the 
principal  day  of  the  pOja. 

Kanyadi — Visvakarma  pQja  (Bengal). 

Tuladi — Kaveri  samkramaija  snana  (Coorg). 

Vrscikadi — Kartika  pQja  (Bengal) 

Makaradi — Makaradi  snana,  Magh  Bihu  (Assam), 
Tila  sariikranti,  Pongal  (S.  India),  Bhogi 
(S.  India — on  the  day  before  Pongal),  Mattu 
Pongal  (S.  India — on  the  day  after  Pongal). 


Criteria  of  some  festivals  for  South  India 


Pahguni  ZJttiram  : — Observed  in  Uttara  Phalgunl 
nakgatra  of  solar  Caitra,  naksatra  covering  15Rh  to 
18gh  from  sunrise.  Also  observed  in  pQrijima  of 
solar  Caitra  covering  tlrthakala  {viz.,  15gh  to  18gh 
from  sunrise). 

Avani  Avi\tam  or  Yaju  Upakarma 

It  is  observed  on  Sravaija  full-moon  day.  The 
pQrijima  should  be  current  for  over  twelve  ghatikas. 
Avaiji  month  (  Bhadrapada  )  or  Avittam  (  Dhani§tha 
nak$.  )  are  not  generally  necessary  for  this  festival. 
Yaju  Upakarma  should  not  be  observed 
(1)  when  Venus  sets  heliacally,  (2)  in  an  inter¬ 
calary  month,  (3)  if  an  eclipse  or  samkranti  occurs 
on  that  day. 

/ 

Ek  Upakarma  : — It  is  observed  in  Sravaija  naksatra 
in  the  month  of  lunar  Sravaija.  Naksatra  should  be 
current  for  three  ghatis  from  sunrise.  If  it  occurs  on 
two  successive  days,  the  first  day  is  selected.  • 

A4i  Puram  : — POrva  Phalgunl  nakjatra  of  saura 
Sravaija  (pradosavyapinl  or  tirthakala  vyapinl). 

A$i  Amavasya  .—Amavasya  (K  30)  of  saura  Sravaija 
(aparahijavyapinl). 

Sri  Jayanti  (or  Smarta  Sri  Kr?ija  jayantl)  : — 

Observed  in  K  8  of  solar  Bhadrapada — eighth  tithi 
covering  midnight.  Do$am  or  Vedai  are  not  consider¬ 
ed  here. 

Paftcaratra  &ri  §  Kf^na  jayanti  : — Observed  in 
Rohiijl  naksatra  (Kr$ija  pak?a)  of  solar  Bhadrapada. 
Vedam  or  Do§am  is  strictly  considered  here. 

Avani  Mulam  : — Mala  nakjatra  of  saura  Bhadra¬ 
pada  (prado§a),  if  it  occurs  on  two  successive  days,  the 
first  day  is  selected. 

Onam  Day  : — Sravaija  nak§atra  of  solar  Bhadrapada 
(madhyahna  vyapini). 

Kethar  Oauri  Vrata  : — Amavasya  (K  30)  of  lunar 
A£vina — if  caturdasl  extends  upto  l8gh  it  will  be 
observed  on  the  next  day. 


Annabhi$ekam  : — PUrijima  of  saura  Kartika 

(pradojavyapini).  The  combination  of  AsvinI  nak?atra 
is  favourable. 

Bharani  Dipam  : — Observed  in  BharaijI  nak§atra  of 
saura  Margasir^a  (pradosavyapini). 

Krttika  Dipam  : — Observed  in  Krttika  nak?atra  of 
saura  Margaslr§a  (pradosavyapini). 

Vaikhanasa  Dipam  : — PQrijima  of  saura  Marga- 
slrga  (pradosavyapini). 

Arudra  Darsanam  :  —  Ardra  nak$atra  of  saura 
Pau$a. 

Vaikun{ha  Ekadasi  ( Vai$nava )  : — Sukla  ekadasi  of 
saura  Pausa. 

Thai  Pu§am  ■. — Observed  in  Pusya  naksatra  of 
saura  Magha,  naksatra  covering  the  period  6  ghatikas 
from  sunrise — If  it  occurs  on  two  days  the  first  day 
is  to  be  selected. 

Thai  Amavasya  : — Amavasya  (K  30)  of  saura  Magha 
(aparahijavyapinl). 

Masi  Magham  : — Observed  in  Magha  naksatra  of 
saura  Phalguna,  naksatra  covering  the  period  tlrtha- 
kalam.  Also  observed  on  the  pQrijima  day. 

Notes  If  the  determinants  occur  twice  i.e.,  at 
the  beginning  and  end  of  a  solar  month,  the  second 
occasion  is  generally  adopted.  If  an  eclipse  occurs  on 
the  second  occasion,  the  first  occasion  is  selected. 
If  both  the  occasions  are  vitiated,  the  second  occasion 
is  then  selected. 

In  observing  Amavasya,,  the  following  principles  are 
generally  followed  : — 

If  Amavasya  tithi  covers  .  the  entire  period  of 
aparahijakala  on  two  successive  days,  it  is  observed 
on  the  first  day  in  a  decreasing  tithimana  and  on  the 
second  day  in  an  increasing  tithimana. 


GENERAL  RULES  FOR  RELIGIOUS  FESTIVALS 


107 


Certain  Special  Tithis  and  Combinations. 


yugAdi 

1.  Satya  (  Krta  )  Yugadi  Kartika  S 

2.  Treta  Yugadi  •••  Vaisakha  S  3 

3.  Dvapara  Yugadi  Magha  K  30 

4.  Kali  Yugadi  Bhadra  K  13 

In  Bengal,  however,  the  tithis  of  Yugadi  are  as 
follows  : — 


Satya  Yugadi 

Vaisakha 

S 

3 

Treta  Yugadi 

Kartika 

S 

9 

Dvapara  Yugadi  ••• 

Sravaija 

K 

13 

Kali  Yugadi 

Magha 

S 

15 

1. 

manvXdi 

SvayambhQva 

Asvina 

S  9 

2. 

Svarociga 

Kartika 

S  12 

3. 

Uttama 

Caitra 

S  3 

4. 

Tamasa 

Bhadra 

S  3 

5. 

Raivata 

Pauga 

s- 11 

6. 

Cakguga 

AgScJha 

S  10 

7. 

Vaivasvata 

Magha 

S  7 

8. 

Stlrya  Savariji 

Sravaija 

K  8 

9. 

’  Dakga  Savariji  ••• 

Sravaija 

K  30 

10. 

Brahma  Savariji  ••• 

Agaclha 

S  15 

11. 

Dharma  Savariji 

Kartika 

S  15 

12. 

Rudra  Savariji  ••• 

Phalguna 

S  15 

13. 

Raucya 

Caitra 

S  15 

14. 

Bhautya 

Jyegtha 

S  15 

In  Bengal  there  are  some  variations  as  noted  below  : — 

No.  8.  Sarya  Savarrji — 

Instead  of  Sravaija  K  8,  it  is  Agadha  K  8. 

No.  9.  Dakga  Savariji — 

Instead  of  Sravaija  K  30,  it  is  Magha  K  30. 

Note  : — The  tithis  of  Yugadi  and  Manvadi  of 
sukla  pakga  should  be  purvahijavyapini,  and  of  krgija 
pakga  aparahijavyapinl.  But  in  Bengal,  all  are 
•udayagaminl  covering  the  first  muhQrta  of  the  day. 

kalpAdi 

1.  KGrma  Kalpadi  ...  Caitra  S  5(&  2.  Caitra  K  30) 

3.  Parthiva  Kalpadi...  Vaisakha  S  3 

4.  Savitrl  Kalpadi  ...  Kartika  S  7 

5.  Pralaya  Kalpadi  ...  Margaslrga  S  9 

6.  Varaha  Kalpadi  ...  Magha  S  13 

7.  Brahma  Kalpadi  ...  Phalguna  K  3 

Note  : — All  are  pGrvahijavyapinl. 


JAYANTl 

(The  three  sets  of  tithis  given  «  below  are 
according  to  three  different  versions). 

Matsya —  Caitra  S  3  Caitra  S  5  Agacjha  S  11 
(Aparahija)  (Madhyahna)  (Pratah) 

KGrma — Vai&akha  S  15  Jyegtha  S  12  Sravaija  S  3 
(Sayahna)  (Sayahna)  (Pratah) 

Varaha — Sravaija  S  4  Caitra  S  9  Bhadra  S  5 
(Aparahija)  (Pratah  )  (Madhyahna) 

Nrsimha — Vaisakha  S  14  Vaisakha  S  14  Vaisakha  S  14 
(Sayahna)  (Pradoga)  (Sayahna) 

Vamana — Bhadra  S  12  Bhadra  S  12  Bhadra  S  11 
(Madhyahna)  (Madhyahna)  (Sayahna) 

Parasurama — 

Vaisakha  S  3  Vaisakha  S  3  Vaisakha  S  3 

(Madhyahna)  (Aruijodaya)  (Pradoga) 

Sri  Rama — Caitra  S  9  Caitra  S  9  Caitra  S  9 

(Madhyahna)  (Madhyahna)  (Madhyahna) 

/  /  /  / 

Sri  Krgija — Sravaija  K  8  Sravaija  K  8  Sravaija  K  8 

(Madhyaratri)  (Madhyaratri)  (Madhyaratri) 

Buddha — Asvina  S  10  Bhadra  S  2  Pauga  S  7 

(Sayahna)  (Sayahna)  (Sayahna) 

Kalki—  Sravaija  S  6  Jyegtha  S  2  Magha  S  3 

(Sayahna)  (Pratah)  (Pratah) 

mahAdvada6i. 

The  DvadasI  tithi  is  called  MahadvadasI  in  the 
following  cases  : — 

(1)  When  the  11th  tithi  is  current  at  sunrise 
on  two  successive  days,  the  second  day  is  called 
Unmilani  Mahadvadast. 

(2)  When  the  12th  tithi  is  current  at  sunrise  on 
two  successive  days,  then  the  first  day  is  called 
Vafijidi  Mahadvadast. 

(3)  When  the  15th  tithi  or  30th  tithi  is  current 
at  sunrise  on  two  successive  days,  the  preceding 
DvadasI  is  called  Pak?avardhini  Mahadvadast. 

(4)  When  the  11th,  12th  and  13th  tithis  meet  in 
an  ahoratra  (  from  one  sunrise  to  next  sunrise  ),  the 
DvadasI  is  called  Trisprsa  Mahadvadast. 

(5)  When  nakgatra  Sravaija,  RohiijI,  Punarvasu 
or  Pu$ya  is  current  at  sunrise  on  two  successive  days 
and  combines  with  sukla  dvadasl  tithi,  which  extends 
from  sunrise  to  sunset  on  the  first  day  of  nakgatra 
( except  in  case  of  Sravaija  when  the  duration  of 
tithi  upto  sunset  is  not  essential ),  the  DvadasI  is 
called  Vijaya,  Jayanti,  Jaya  and  Pdpandsinl 
respectively. 


C.R.-22 


108 


REPORT  OF  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


GANK&A  CATURTHI 

The  sukla  caturthl  in  each  month  is  called  Garjesa 
caturthl  or  Vinayaka  caturthl.  It  is  observed  at 
madhyahna.  *  The  chief  among  them  are  caturthls  of 
Bhadrapada  and  Magha. 

Similarly  the  kr$ija  caturthl  in  each  month  is 
called  Sankagta  caturthl,  to  be  observed  on  the  day 
when  the  tithi  is  current  at  moonrise.  It  is  called 
Angaraka  caturthl  if  it  falls  on  ‘Tuesday’. 

DURGASTAMl 

The  sukla§taml  in  each  month  is  called  Durga- 
§tami.  The  chief  among  them  are  those  of  Asvina  and 
Caitra. 

KALlSTAMl 

The  kr§ija§taml  in  each  month  is  called  ‘Kala§taml’. 
The  chief  among  them  is  that  of  Kartika. 

^IVARlTRI 

The  krgija  caturdasl  in  each  month  is  called 
Sivaratri’.  The  chief  among  them  is  that  of  Magha. 
The  tithi  must  cover  nisltha  (  or  prado§a  in  some 
opinion). 

In  Orissa,  both  sukla  and  kr§ija  caturdasls  are 
observed  as  'SivacaturdasT.  These  are  pradosavySpinl. 


Certain  other  important  Tithis 

Pradosa-vrata — The  sukla  and  krsija  trayodasl  tithis 
of  each  month  when  cover  the  period  of 
‘prado§a’,  are  observed  as  Prado$a-vr^tas. 

Csturmasya-vrata — Caturmasya  vrata  commences  on 
A§acj.ha  S  11  or  (S  12),  or  S  15,  or  on  vKarkata 
samkramaija,  and  ends  on  Kartika  S  12, 
S  15  and  Vrscika  samkramaija  respectively. 
If  Vrscika  samkranti  occurs  before  Kartika 
S  12,  it  will  also  then  end  on  Kartika  S  12. 


Certain  special  Yogas 

Cnfamaipi  Yoga — CGcJSmaijiyoga  occurs  when  a  solar 
eclipse  takes  place  in  a  locality  on  Sunday, 
or  a  lunar  eclipse  on  Monday  night. 

Kumbha  Yoga — The  Kumbha  yoga  occurs  at  interval 
of  three  years,  when  Jupiter  remains  in 
Kumbha  ra&i,  Vr$a  rlsi,  Simha  rasi  or 
Vrscika.  ra&i. 


The  Kumbha  Yoga  occurs  at  the  following  places  : — 
At  Haridwar — Jupiter  in  Kumbha  and  Sun  enters 
Me$a. 

At  Prayag  (  Allahabad  ) — Jupiter  in  Vr§ava  and  Sun 
and  Moon  in  Makara. 

At  Nasik — Jupiter  in  Simha  and  Sun  and  Moon  in 
Karkata. 

At  Ujjain — Jupiter  in  Vrscika  and  Sun  in  Tula. 

Note  : — The  Kumbha  yoga  at  Ujjain  originally  used 
to  be  held  during  the  year  in  which  Jupiter  remained 
in  Vrscika  rasi.  But  for  more  than  the  last  hundred 
years,  it  is  being  observed  during  the  year  in  which 
Jupiter  remains  in  Simha  at  the  time  of  full-moon  of 
Vaisakha.  At  this  time  Ardha  Kumbha  occurs  at 
Haridwar. 

Explanation  of  terms  used  in  the  above  list. 

POrvaviddha— When  the  required  tithi  combines  with 
the  next  preceding  tithi. 

Paraviddha — When  the  required  tithi  combines  with 
the  next  following  tithi. 

Note  : — The  above  questions  are  to  be  considered 
only  in  case  when  the  desired  moment  of 
festival  is  available  on  two  successive  days. 

Yamardha — One-eighth  part  of  the  day-time  i.e.,  about 
lh  30m. 

MuhUrta— One-fifteenth  part  of  the  day-time 
(approximately  2  ghatls  or  48  mins). 

Aruijodaya — Two  muhurtas  (about  4  ghatikas  or 
lh  36m)  before  sunrise. 

Pratah — First  three  muhurtas  (fth  part  of  the  day-time 
or  about  2h  24m)  after  sunrise. 

Sangava — 4th,  5th,  and  6th  muhurtas  of  the  day. 
PQrvahija — One-third  of  the  day-time  from  sunrise  i.e., 
the  first  five  muhurtas  (about  4  hours  from 
sunrise),  or  if  this  time  is  not  available 
then  pOrvahija  is  first  half  of  the  day. 
Madhyahna — Second  one-third  of  the  day-time,  i.e„ 
6th  to  10th  muhurtas.  Or  7th,  8th  and  9th 
muhurtas.  Or  two  ghatikas  covering  mid-day- 
Aparahija — One-third  of  the  day  before  sunset,  or  if 
this  is  not  available  then  it  is  the  last  half 
of  the  day.  Or  10th,  11th  and  12th  muhurtas 
of  the  day-time. 

Sayahna — One-fifth  of  the  day  (i.e.  about  2h  24m) 
before  sunset  (13th,  14th  and  15th  muhurtas). 
Pradoja — Two  muhurtas  (about  4  ghatikas  or  lb  36m) 
after  sunset.  (  In  some  opini™*  three 
muhurtas  after  sunset  ). 

Nisltha  or  Madhyaratri — Two  ghatikas  covering 
midnight. 


GENERAL  RULES  :EOR  RELIGIOUS  FESTIVALS 


109 


Tithis,  Naksatras,  Muhurtas  and  their  Lords. 
TITHIS  NAKSATRAS 


No.  Tithi  Lord 


1. 

Pratipad 

Agni 

2. 

Dvitlya 

Prajapati 

3. 

Trtlya 

Gaurl  • 

4. 

Caturthl 

Garjesa 

5. 

PancamI 

Sarpa 

6. 

Sagthi 

Guha  (Kartika) 

7. 

SaptamI 

SOrya 

8. 

Agtami 

Siva 

9. 

NavamI 

Durga 

10. 

Dasaml 

Yama 

11. 

Ekadasl 

Visva 

12. 

DvadasI 

Vigiju 

13. 

Trayodasl 

Madana 

14. 

CaturdasI 

Siva 

15. 

PGrijima  (Paurijamasl) 

Candra 

30. 

Amavasya 

Pitrs 

GENERAL  RULES  FOR  PURVAVIDDHA  AND 

Tithi 

PARAVIDDHA 

Suklapaksa 

Kr?napak$a 

(Bright  half) 

( Dark  half) 

1 

Porva  (but  paraviddha 

Para 

2 

for  Navaratri  vrata) 

Para 

Porva 

3 

Para  (but  purvaviddha 

Para 

4 

for  Rambha  trtlya) 

Para  (but  pOrvaviddha  for 

Para 

5 

Gaijesa  vrata) 

PGrva  (but  paraviddha 

Porva 

6 

for  Naga  puja) 

Para  (but  pOrvaviddha 

Para  _ 

for  Skanda  vrata) 

7 

POrva 

Porva 

8 

Park  (but  purvaviddha 

Porva  (but 

for  Dorvagtaml) 

paraviddha 

/ 

for  Siva  and 
/ 

Sakti  pdja) 


.9 

Pflrva 

PGrva 

10 

Para 

POrva 

11 

Para 

Para 

12 

Porva  (but  paraviddha  for 
Pipltakl  and  AkhaijcJa 
dvada^l) 

POrva 

13 

Porva 

Para 

14 

Para 

Porva 

15  or  30 

Para  (but  pOrvaviddha 

Para  (but 

for  Sravaql,  Savitrlvrata 

pOrvaviddha 

and  in  Bengal  generally) 

for  Savifcrl- 

vrata) 


No. 

General  Name 

Tamil  Name 

Lord 

1. 

A&vinI 

— 

Asvins 

2. 

BharaijI 

— 

Yama 

3. 

Krttika 

Kiruttigai 

Agni 

4. 

RohiijI 

- 

Prajapati 

5. 

Mrgasiras 

Mirugaslram 

Soma 

6. 

Ardra 

Arudra  or 
Tiruvadirai 

Rudra 

7. 

Punarvasu 

- 

Aditi 

8. 

Pugya 

Pogam 

Brhaspati 

9. 

A£le§a 

Ayilyam 

Sarpas 

10. 

Magha 

Magham, 

Pitrs 

11. 

Porva  PhalgunI 

PQram 

Bhaga 

12. 

Uttara  PhalgunI 

Uttiram 

Aryama 

13. 

Hasta 

Hastam 

Savita 

14. 

Citra 

Cittirai 

Tvagta 

15. 

Svati 

- 

Vayu 

16. 

Visakha 

Visakam 

Indragnl 

17. 

Anuradha 

Anugam 

Mitra 

18. 

Jyegtha 

Kettai 

Indra 

19. 

Mala 

Molam 

Nirrti 

20. 

POrva  A$adha 

POra4am 

Apah 

21. 

Uttara  Aga4ha 

Uttira4am 

Visvedevas 

22. 

Sravaija 

Tiruvoijum 

Vigou 

23. 

Dhanigtha 

(Sravigtha) 

Avittam 

Vasus 

24. 

Satabhigaj 

Sadayam 

Varuija 

25. 

PQrva  Bhadrapada 

PQra^tadi 

Aja  ekapad 

26. 

Uttara  Bhadrapada 

Uttira^adi 

Ahirbudhnya 

27. 

Revatl 

- 

Poga 

MUHURTAS 
Lord 

No.  of  - — 

Muhurta  Day 

1  Ardra 

2  Aslega 

3  Anuradha 

4  Magha 

5  Dhanigtha 

6  Parva§a<}ha 

7  Uttara§a4bs 

'8  Abhijit 

9  Roh.ii)! 

10  Jyegtha  (Visakha) 

11  Visakha  (Jyegtha) 

12  Mda 

13  Satabhigaj 

14  U.  PhalgunI 

15  P.  PhalgunI 
N.B. — The  Lords  stated  in  brackets  are  according  to 

the  Bengal  rule. 


Night 

Ardra 

P.  Bhadrapada 

U.  Bhadrapada 

Revatl 

Asvinl 

Bharaql 

Krttika 

Rohii)l 

Mrgasiras 

Punarvasu 

Pugya  (Sravaija) 

Sravaoa  (Pugya) 

Hasta 

Citra 

Svati 


110 


BEPOBT  OF  THE  CALENDAB  BEFOBM  COMMITTEE 


Yogas  and 

YOGAS 


No. 

Yoga 

Lord 

1. 

Vigkambha  (Vi§kumbha) 

Yama 

2. 

Prlti 

Vi§iju 

3. 

Ayugman 

Candra 

4. 

Saubhagya 

Brahma 

5. 

Sobhana 

Brhaspati 

6. 

Atigan4a 

Candra 

7. 

SukarmH 

Indra 

8. 

Dhrti 

Apah 

9. 

Scla 

Sarpa 

10. 

Gai}4a 

Agni 

11. 

Vrddhi 

SQrya 

12. 

Dhruva 

Prthivl 

13. 

Vyaghata 

Pavana 

14. 

Harjaija 

Rudra 

15. 

Vajra 

Varuija 

16. 

Siddhi  (Asrk  in  Beng.) 

Gaqe£a 

17. 

Vyatlpata 

Siva 

18. 

Varlyan 

Kuvera 

19. 

Parigha 

Visvakarma 

20. 

Siva 

Mitra 

21. 

Siddha 

Kartika 

22. 

Sadhya 

Savitrl 

23. 

Subha  f 

Kamala 

24. 

Sukla  (Sukra  in  Beng.) 

Gauri 

25. 

Brahma 

Asvins 

26. 

Indra 

Pitrs 

27. 

Vaidhrti 

Aditi 

CALCULATION  OF  YOGA 

Yoga  is  calculated  from  the  sum  of  the  longitudes 
of  the  sun  and  the  moon.  When  this  sum  amounts 
to  13°  20'  the  first  yoga  Vi§kambha  ends  ;  similarly 
26°  40'  marks  the.  ending  moment  of  the  second  yoga 
Prlti,  and  so  on.  These  yogas  have  not  been  given 
in  the  calendar. 


KARANAS 

In  each  tithi  ther*.  are  two  karaijas  covering  the 
two  halves  of  the  tithimSna.  A  karaija  is  therefore 
completed  when  the  moon  gains  every  6°  on 
the  sun. 


Karanas. 


Tithi 

Karai^a 

1st  half  of  tithi 

2nd  half  of  tithi 

S  1 

Kimstughna 

Bava 

2 

Balava 

Kaulava 

3 

Taitila 

Gara 

4 

Vaijij 

Vi§ti 

5 

Bava 

Balava 

6 

Kaulava 

Taitila 

7 

Gara 

Vaijij 

8 

Vijti 

Bava 

9 

Balava 

Kaulava 

10 

Taitila 

Gara 

11 

Va^ij 

Vigti 

12 

Bava 

Balava 

13 

Kaulava 

Taitila 

14 

Gara 

VaQij 

S  15 

Vi?ti 

Bava 

K  1 

Balava 

Kaulava 

2 

Taitila 

Gara 

3 

Vaoij 

Vigti 

4 

Bava 

Balava 

5 

Kaulava 

Taitila 

6 

Gara 

Vaijij 

7 

Vifti 

Bava 

8 

Balava 

Kaulava 

9 

Taitila 

Gara 

10 

Vaijij 

Vi5ti 

11 

Bava 

Balava 

12 

Kaulava 

Taitila 

13 

Gara 

Vaqij 

14 

Vi§ti 

Sakuni 

K  30 

Naga 

CatuSpada 

Karwtyi 

Lord 

1. 

Bava 

Indra 

2. 

Balava 

Brahma 

3. 

Kaulava 

Mitra 

4. 

Taitila 

Aryama 

5. 

Gara 

Bh 

6. 

Vaijij 

Lak§ml 

7. 

Vi?ti 

Yama 

Sakuni 

Kali 

Naga 

Sarpa 

Catugpada 

V  rjava 

Kimstughna 

Vayu 

iV..B. — As  regards 

the  sthira  karanas.  viz.,  the  last 

four, 

the  above  order 

is  according  to  the  Surya  Siddhanta. 

But 

later  authorities 

have  adopted  the  order  feakuni. 

Gatuvpada,  Naga  and  Kifnstughna  (or  Kintughna). 


ALPHABETICAL  LIST  OF  FESTIVALS 

(  Arranged  according  to  the  English  alphabetical  order  ) 


A 

Acala  saptaml — Magha  S  7. 

A4i  amavasya.  (  South  India ) — K  30  of  saura 
Sravaija. 

A4i  param  (  South  India  ) — P.  Phalguni  nakgatra  of 
saura  Sravaija  (  see  p.  106  ). 

Aduhkha  navaml — Bhadra  S  9. 

Aghora  caturdasl — Sravaija  K  14. 

Agnyutsava — Magha  S  15. 

Ahoyi  agtaml  (Gujerat) — Asvina  K  8. 

Aja  ekadasl — Sravaija  K  11. 

Akhaij4a  dvadasl — Marga&Irga^S  12. 

Akhetaka  trayodasi  (Orissa) — Sravaija  S  13. 

Akgaya  navaml — Kartika  S  9. 

Akgaya  trtlya — Vaisakha  S  3  (Special  when 

combined  with  Rohiijl  and  Wednesday). 

Alocana  Gauri  vrata — Kartika  S  3. 

—  / 

Aloka  amavasya  —Sravaija  K  30. 

Amalakl  dvadasl— Magha  S  12. 

Amalakl  ekadasl — Phalguna  S  11. 

Ananga  trayodasi— Caitra  S  13. 

Ananta  caturdasl — Bhadra  S  14. 

Andolana  trtlya — Caitra  S  3. 

Ahgabheta  trtlya  (OrissaJr-Sravaija  K  3. 

Anla  navaml  (Orissa)— Kartika  S  9. 

Annabhigekam  (  South  India  ) — Pnrijima  of  saura 

Kartika  (see  p.  106). 

Annakota — Kartika  S  1. 

AnnapUrija  puja  (Bengal) — Caitra  S  8. 

Annartlpa  gagthl  (Bengal) — Pauga  S  6. 

Apara  ekadasl — Vaisakha  K  11. 

Araijya-Gaurl  vrata — Jyaigtha  S  6. 

Araijya  gagthl — Jyaigtha  S  6. 

Ardhodaya  yoga — (Pauga  K  30  combined  with 
nakgatra  Sravaija,  yoga  Vyatlpata  &  Sunday 
at  daytime). 

Arogya  saptaml — Magha  S  7. 

Arudra  darsanam  (South  India) — Ardra  nakgatra 
of  saura  Pauga. 

AsokagtamI — Caitra  S  8  (Special  when  combined 

with  nakgatra  Punarvasu  and  Wednesday). 

Asoka  gagthl  (Bengal) — Caitra  S  6. 

AsOnya  sayana  vrata — Aga4ha  K  2,  Sravaija  K  2, 

Bhadra  K  2  &  Alvina  K  2. 

—  / 

Avaiji  avittam  (  South  India  ) — Sravaija  S  15. 
(see  pp.  103  &  106). 

Avaiji  mulam  (South  India) — Mala  nakgatra  of 
saura  Bhadrapada  (  see  p.  106). 

Avidhava  navaml — Bhadra  K  9. 


B 

Ba4a  oga  (Orissa) — Kartika  S  14. 

Bahag  Bihu  (Assam) — The  day  of  transit  of  the  sun 
into  Mega  of  the  religious  calendar. 

Bahula  caturthl  (Madhyadesa) — Sravaija  K  4. 

Balabhadra  pQja  (Orissa) — Sravaija  S  15. 

Balidaityaraja  pOja — Kartika  S  1. 

Bhaiml  ekadasl — Magha  S  11. 

BharaijI  dlpam  (South  India) — Bharaiji  nak§atra  of 
saura  Margasirga. .. 

Bharat  Milap — Asvina  S  11. 

Bhavanl  utpatti — Caitra  S  8. 

Bhl§ma  dvadasl — Magha  S  12. 

Bhlsma  paiicaka — Kartika  S  11. 

Bhl§ma$taml  —Magha  S  8. 

Bhogi  (South  India) — The  day  before  Pongal. 

Bhratrdvitlya — Kartika  S  2. 

Bhuta  caturdasl — A&vina  K  14. 

.  ✓ 

Buddha  dvadasl — Sravaija  S  12. 

Buddha  pOrijima — Vaisakha  S  15. 

C 

Ca4aka  pnja  (Bengal) — The  day  (midnight  ending) 
of  transit  of  the  sun  into  Me§a  of  the 
religious  calendar. 

Caitrl  purijima — Caitra  S  15. 

Campaka  caturdasl  (Bengal) — Jyaigtha  S  14. 

Campaka  dvadasl  (Orissa) — Jyai$tha  S  12. 

Campa  $a$thi — Bhadra  S  6 — when  combined  with 
nak?atra  Visakha,  yoga  Vaidhrti  and 
Tuesday. 

Campa  $a?£hl  (Maharastra) — Marga.  S  6  (Special 
when  combined  with  nakgatra  Satabhigaj, 
yoga  Vaidhrti  and  Sunday). 

Candana  gagthl  (Bengal) — Vaisakha  S  6. 

Candana  yatra — Vaisakha  S  3. 

Candrabhaga  saptaml  (Orissa) — Magha  S  7 

Candra  gagthl — Bhadra  K  6. 

Carpata  gagthl  (Bengal) — Bhadra  S  6. 

Caturmasya  caturdasl  (Jain) — Aga4ha  S  14,  Kartika 
S  14,  Phalguna  S  14. 

Caturmasya  vrata — (see  p.  108, 

Caumasl  caudas  (Jain) — see  Caturmasya  caturdasl. 

Cheiraoba  (Manipur) — The  day  of  transit  of  the 
sun  into  Mega  of  the  religious  calendar. 

Chhat  (Bihar) — Kartika  S  6. 

Citau  (Citalagi)  amavasya  (Orissa) — Ag§4ha  K  30. 

Ca4amaiji  yoga — Ca4Smaoi  yoga  occurs  when  a 
solar  eclipse  takes  place  'in  a  locality  on 
Sunday  or  lunar  eclipse  on 'Monday  night. 


112 


REPORT  OP  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


D 

Damanotsava — Caitra  S  12. 

Damodara  dvadasl — Sravaija  S  12. 

Dana  dvadasl  (Orissa) — Margaslrja  S  12. 

Dalahara — Asvina  S  10.  (Special  when  combined 
with  nak§atra  Sravaga). 

Dasahara  snanarambha — Jyai§$ha  S  1  (lasting  for 
10  days). 

Dasaratha  caturthl  (Bengal) — Asvina  K  4. 
Dattatreyotpatti — Margaslr?a  S  15. 

Devavivaha  ekadasl  (Orissa) — Jyai§tha  S  11. 

Dhana  trayodasl — Asvina  K  13. 

Dharmaraja  dasami — Caitra  S  10. 

Dlpadana— Alvina  K  14. 

Dlpavall  (Dewali)— Asvina  K  30. 

Dlpavall  amavasya  (Orissa) — Kartika  K  30. 
Dolayatra — Phalguna  S  15. 

Dol  Gyaras  (Madhya  Bharat) — Bhadra  S  11. 
Dolotsava — Caitra  S  3,  Caitra  S  11. 

Durga  navaml — Kartika  S  9. 

Durga  navaml  (Maharastra) — Bhadra  K  9. 

Durga  pOja  (Bengal) — Asvina  S  7  to  S  10. 

Durga  saptaml — Asvina  S  7 
Durga  §a§thl — Alvina  S  6. 

Durga  sayana§taml — (Orissa) — Bhadra  S  8. 
Durga^ami — S  8  of  each  month  is  called  Durga§taml 
(see  also  p.  108). 

Darva§taml — Bhadra  S  8  (also  observed  in  S  8  of 
saura  Bhadra  except  Bengal). 

Dyuta  pratipad — Kartika  S  1. 

G 

Gandhesvarl  pOja  (Bengal) — Vaisakha  S  15- 
Gaijesa  caturthl — Bhadra  S  4,  Magha  S  4.’ 

Gaijesa  jayantl — Magha  S  4. 

Gahga  da&ahara — Jyai?t;ha  S  10  (  Special  when 
combined  with  nak.  Hasta,  yoga  Vyatlpata, 
kararja  Gara  and  Tuesday  ). 

Gangotpatti— Vaisakha  S  7'. 

Gaurl  (Mysore) — Bhadra  S  3. 

Gaurl  trtlya — Caitra  S3. 

Gaurl  vrata  (Orissa) — Bhadra  S  3. 

Gokula§tjaml — Sravaija  K  8. 

Gopadma  v'ratarambha — A§acjha  S  12. 

Gopa§taml — Kartika  S  8. 

Gortlpiijl  §a§thi  (Bengal)— Phalguna  S  6. 

Go$£ha§taml — Kartika  S  8. 

Govardhana  pOja— Kartika  S  1. 

Govatsa  dvadasl-^-Asvina  K  12. 

Govinda  dvadasl — Phalguna  S  12  when  combined 
with  Pu§ya  nakjatra. 

Guha  §a§thl — Margaslr§a  S  6. 

Guru  pancaml  (Orissa)- — S  5  of.  any  month  falling  on 
Thursday; 

Guru  pOrijima — A§a4ha  S  15. 


H 

Hala  §a§^hl — Sravaija  K  6. 

Hanumat  janmadina — Asvina  K  14. 
Hanumat  jayantl — Caitra  S  15. 
Harisayanl  ekadasl — A§acjha  S  11. 
Haritall  caturthl — S  4  of  saura  Bhadra. 
Haritalika  vrata — Bhadra  S  3. 
Hayagrivotpatti — Sravapa  S  15. 

Heikra  Hitomba  (Manipur)— Bhadra  S  11. 
Hera  pancaml  (Orissa) — A$adha  S  6. 

Holi — Day  after  Holikadahana. 
Holikadahana — Phalguna  S  15. 


I 

Indira  ekadasl — Bhadra  K  11. 
Indra-Govinda  pOja  (Orissa) — Bhadra  S  15. 


J 

Jagaddhatrl  pOja  (Bengal) — Kartika  S  9. 

Jagratgaurl  pancaml  (Orissa) — Srgvaija  S  5. 

Jahnu  saptaml — Vaisakha  S  7 
Jalakrlda  ekadasl  (Orissa) — Vaisakha  K  11. 
Janma§taml — Sravaija  K  8. 

Jaya  ekadasl — Magha  S  11. 

Jayantl — (see  p.  107). 

Jhulanayatra — Sravaija  S  11. 

Jhulanayatra  samapana — Sravaija  S  15. 
JlmQtavahana  pQja — Bhadra  K  8. 

Jita$taml — Bhadra  K  8. 

Jnana  pancaml  (Jain) — Kartika  S  5. 

K 

Kajjall  trtlya — Sravaija  K  3. 

Kalabhairava  jayantl — Kartika  K  8. 

Kala§taml — Kartika  K  8. 

Kali  pUja — Asvina  K  30. 

Kaliyadalana  ekadasl  (Orissa) — Sravaija  K  11. 
Kalki  dvadasl — Bhadra  S  12. 

Kalpadi — (see  p.  107). 

Kamada  ekadasl — Caitra  S  II. 

Kamala  ekada&I — K  II  of  a  malamasa. 

Kamika  ekadasl — Agacjha  K  11. 

Kanji  Anla  navaml  (Orissa)  —Kartika  K  9. 

Kapila  sa$thl — Bhadra  K  6  when  combined  with 
nakjatra  Rohiiji,  yoga  Vyatlpata,  Sun  in 
Hasta  and  Tuesday. 

Karaka  caturthl — Alvina  K  4. 

Kara?taml  (Maharastra) — Asvina  K  8. 

Kardama  ?a?thl  (Bengal)— AjatJha  S  6. 

Karkataka  vavu  (Travancore-Cochin)— K  30  of 
saura  Sravaija. 


ALPHABETICAL  LIST  OF  FESTIVALS 


113 


K  —  contd- 

Ksrtika  poja  (Bengal) — The  day  of  .  transit  of  the 
sun  into  Vricika  of  the  religious  calendar. 

Kartik!  pQrijima — Kartika  S  15. 

Kaverl  Samkramaija  (  Coorg  )  —  The  day  of  transit 
of  the  sun  into  Tula  of  the  religious 
calendar. 

Kedara  vrata — (Orissa) — Kartika  S  15. 

Ker  poja  (Tripura) — First  Tuesday  or  Saturday 
after  14  days  from  Kharci  pCtja. 

Kethar  Gaurl  vrata  (South  India) — Asvina  K  30. 
Kharci  poja  (Tripura) — Asacjha  S  8. 

Kojagarl  Lak§ml  pQrijima — Asvina  S  15. 

Kokila  vrata — Asaijha  S  15. 

Krttika  dlpam  (  S.  India  ) — Krttika  nak$atra  of 
saura  Margaslr§a. 

Kumara  pQrijima  (Orissa) — Alvina  S  15. 

Kumara  §a§thl — A§acjha  S  6. 

Kumbha  yoga — (see  p.  108). 

Kunda  caturthl — Magha  S  4. 

KGrma  dvadasl— Pau§a  S  12. 

Kusa  grahaija- — Sravaija  K  30. 

L 

Lakjmlnarayaija  ejkadasl  (Orissa) — S  11  of  any  month 
falling  on^Thursday. 

Lak$ml  pancaml  (Sri  pancaml) — Caitra  S  5. 

Lalita  saptami  (Bengal  &  Orissa) — Bhadra  S  7. 
Lolarka  $a?thl— Bhadra  S  6- 
Luijthaija  §a§thi  (Bengal) — Sravaija  S  6. 

M 

Madana  bhariji  (Bengal  &  Orissa) — Caitra  S  14. 
Madana  dvadasl — Caitra  S  12. 

Madana  pancaml — Magha  S  5. 

Madhu-kr§ij2  trayodasl — Phalguna  K  13. 

MadhusravS  (Gujerat) — Sravaija  S  3. 

Magha  trayodasl — Bhadra  K  13  when  combined 
with  Magha  nak§atra. 

Magh  Bihu  (Assam) — The  day  of  transit  of  the  sun 
into  Makara  of  the  religious  calendar. 

Maghl  pQrijima— Magha  S  15. 

Mahadeva  vivaha  (Orissa) — Jyaijtha  S  5. 

Mahalak?mi  puja — A&vina  K  30. 

Mahalak§ml  vrata — Bhadra  S  8  to  Bhadra  K  8. 
Mahalaya  am2vasya — Bhadra  K  30. 

Mahalay3rambha — Bhadra  K  1. 

Maha  maghi— Magha  S  15,  with  Jupiter  and  Moon 
in  nak§atra  Magha,  Sun  in  Sravaija  and 
Saturn  in  Me?a. 

Mahananda  navaml — Magha  S  9. 

MahanavamI — Asvina-  S  9. 

Mahasivaratri — Magha  K  14. 

Maha§(:aml — Asvina  S  8. 

Mahavlra  jayanti  (Jain) — Caitra  S  13. 

Mahavira  nirvaija — (Jain)— Asvina  K  30 . 

Makara  vavu  (T.  C.  State)— K  SO^Usaura  Magha; 


M  —  contd. 

Makaradi  snana — The  day  of  transit  of  the  sun 
into  Makara  of  the  religious  calendar. 

Mamsa?taka — Pau§a  K  8. 

Mana  caturthi  (Bengal  &  Orissa) — Asvina  S  4. 
Manasa  pQja  (Bengal) — Saura  Sr2vana  (see  p.  106). 
Manoratha  dvitlya — A$adh'a  S  2. 

Manthana  $a?thl  (Bengal) — Bhadra  S  6. 

Manvadi — (see  p.  107). 

Masi  magham  (South  India) — Magha  nak§atra  of 
saura  Phalguna  (also  observed  on  the 
pQrijima  day). 

Masyadhara  pujs  (Bihar) — Kartika  S  2. 

Matr  navaml — Bhadra  K  9. 

Matsya  dvadasl — Margaslr$a  S  12. 

Mattu  Pongal  (South  India) — The  day  after  Pongal. 
Mauna  ekadasi  (Jain) — Margaslr?a  S  11. 

Maun!  amavasya  (Uttar  Pradesh) — Pau$a  K  30. 
Meru  trayodasl  (Jain)— Pau?a  K  13. 

Mitra  saptaml; — Margaslr§a  S  7. 

MohinI  ekadasi— Vaisakha  S  11. 

Mok§ada  ekadasi — Margaslr§a  S  11. 

Muktabharaija  vrata — Bhadra  S  7. 

Malakarupiijl  ?a§tbl — Margaslr§a  S  6. 

Molastaml  (Orissa) — Bhadra  K  8. 

N 

Nacjl  §a§thl  (Bengal)— Kartika  S  6. 

Naga  caturthl — Kartika  S  4. 

Naga  pancaml  (1st) — Sravaija  S  5. 

Naga  pancaml  (2nd) — Margaslr§a  S  5. 

Naga  pancaml  (Bengal) — -Asacjha  K  5. 

Nanda  navaml — Bhadra  S  9. 

Naraka  caturdasl — Asvina  K  14. 

Narayaija  dvada&l — Kartika  S  12. 

Naroll  pQrijima — Sravaija  S  15. 

Nata  pancaml  (Orissa) — Asvina  S  5 
Navaratrarambha— Caitra  S  1,  Asvina  S  1. 

Nirjala  ekadasi — Jyaigtha  S  11. 

Nrsimha  caturdasl — Vaisakha  S  14  (Special  when 
combined  with  nak§atra  Sv3tl,  yoga  Siddha 
and  Saturday). 

Nrsimha  dvadasl — Phalguna  S  12. 

0 

Oli  beginning  (Jain)— Caitra  S  7,  Asvina  S-7  (8  days 
before  pQrijima). 

Oli  ending  (Jain)— Caitra  S^  15,  Asvina  S  15. 

Onam  day  (South  India) — Sravaija  nak§atra  of  solar 
Bhadrapada. 

P 

Padmanabha  dvada&I — A&vina  S  12. 

Padminl  ekadasi— S  11  of  a  malamasa. 

Pak?avardhiijl  mahadvadasl — When  15th  tithi  or 
30th  tithi  is  current  at  sunrise  on  two 
successive  days,  the  dvadasl  first  preceding 
is  called  Pakjavardhiijl  mahadvadasl. 


114 


REPORT  OP  THE  CALENDAR  REPQRM  COMMITTEE 


P  —  contd. 

_  7  . 

Pancarstra  Sri  Kr§ija  jayanti — Rohujl  nakjatra  of 
saura  Bhadrapada. 

Panguni  uttiram  (South  India) — U.  Phalguni 
nak$atra  of  saura  Caitra,  also  observed  in 
PGrijima  of  saura  Caitra  (see  p.  106  ). 
Papamocanl  ekadasi — Phalguna  K  11. 

ParasurSma  dvadasl — Vaisakha  S  12. 

Parasurama  jayanti — Vaisakha  S  3. 

Parasurama§taml  (Orissa)— A§a4ha  S  8. 

Parsva  or  ParivartanI  ekadasi — Bhadra  S  11. 
Paryugaija  parvarambha  (Jain-pancaml  pak§a) — 
Sravaija  K  12. 

Pa$aija  caturdasl  (Bengal  &  Orissa) — S  14  of  saura 
Margaslr§a. 

Pa£anku£a  (papankusa)  ekadasi — Asvina  S  11. 

Pau§a  dasaml  (Jain)— M3rgaslr§a  K  10. 

Phagu  da£aml  (Orissa) — Phalguna  S  10. 

Phalahariijl  Kalika  pQja  (Bengal) — Vaisakha  K  30. 
Phuladola  (Bengal  &  Orissa) — Vaisakha  S  15. 
Pipltakl  dvadasl  (Bengal) — Vaisakha  S  12. 

Pithori  amavasya — Sravaija  K  30. 

Pongal  (South  India) — The  day  of  transit  of  the 
sun  into  Makara  of  the  religious  calendar. 
Prabodhanl  ekadasi— Kartika  S  11. 
Prabodhanotsava— Kartika  S  12. 

Prathamastaml  (Orissa) — Kartika  K  8. 

Pravaraija  §a§thl  (Orissa) — Margaslr§a  S  6. 
Punaryatra — A§adha  S  10  (9th  day  from  Rathayatra). 
PQpa§taka — Margasirja  K  8. 

Puskar  Fair  (Ajmer) — Kartika  S  15. 

Pu§yabhi§ekayatra - Pauja  S  15  (Special  when 
combined  with  Pu§ya  nak§atra). 

Putrada  ekadasi — Sravaija  S  11,  Pau$a  S  11. 

R 

RadhagtamI — Bhadra  S  8. 

Rakhi  purijima — Sravaija  S  15. 

Rak§a  bandhana — Sravaija  S  15. 

Rak§a  pancaml  (Bengal) — Bhadra  S  5. 

Rak§a  pancaml  (Orissa) — Sravaija  K  5. 

Rama  ekadasi — Asvina  K  11. 

Rama  jayanti — Caitra  S  9. 

Ramanavaml — Caitra  S  9  (Special  with  Punarvasu 
nak§atra). 

Rambha  trtiya — Jyai§tha  S  3. 

Ranga  pancaml — Phalguna  K  5. 

Kasayatra — Kartika  S  15. 

Ra^antl  Kalika  puja  (Bengal) — Pau?a  K  14. 

Ratha  saptaml — Magha  S  7. 

Ratha  yatra— AgS^a  S  2  (Special  when  combined 
with  nakgatra  Pu§ya). 

Rathayatra  (Jain) — Kartika  S  15. 

RavinarByaija  ekadasi  (Orissa) — S  11  of  any  month 
falling  on  Sunday.  ;  - 

Rk  upakarma.— -Sravaija  nak$atra  in  the  month  of 
lunar  Sravaija. 


R  —  contd 

R§i  pancaml — Bhadra  S  5. 

R§i  tarpaija — Sravaija  S  15. 

Rudra  vrata — Bhadra  S  1. 

Rudropavasa — Margas!r§a  S  1. 

Rukmiijl  dvadasl — Vaisakha  S  12. 

S 

Saka?taka — Magha  K  8. 

Sakrotthana — Bhadra  S  12. 

Samba  dasaml  (Orissa) — Pau§a  S  10. 

Sampat-Gaurl  vrata — Vaisakha  S  15. 

Samvatsarl  parva  (Jain-caturthl  pakga) — Bhadra  S  4. 
Samvatsarl  parva  (Jain-pancaml  pak§a) — Bhadra  S  5. 
Sankara  jayanti — Vaisakha  S  5. 

Santa  caturthl — Phalguna  S  4.  . 

Santana  dvadasl — Magha  S  12. 

Saphala  ekadasi — Margaslrga  K  11. 

Saptapuri  amavasya  (Orissa) — Sravaija  K  30. 
Sarasvatl  balidana — in  U.  Asadha  nak§atra  of  lunar 
Asvina  suklapakga. 

Sarasvatl  puja — in  P.  A?adha  nak$atra  of  lunar 
Asvina  suklapakja. 

Sarasvatl  puja  (Bengal  &  Orissa) — Magha  S  5. 
Sarasvatl  sthapana — in  Mula  nakgatra  of  lunar 
Asvina  suklapakja. 

Sarasvatl  visarjana — in  Sravaija  nakgatra  of  lunar 
Asvina  suklapakja. 

Sarhul  (Bihar) — Caitra  S  3. 

Sarkara  saptaml— Vaisakha  S  7. 

Sastrahata  caturdasl— Asvina  K  14. 

Sattila  ekadasi — Pau§a  K  11. 

Saubhagya  caturthl  (Bengal)— Bhadra  S  4. 
Saubhagya  sayana  vrata — Caitra  S  3. 

Savitrl  amavasya  (Orissa) — Vaisakha  K  30. 

Savitrl  caturdasl  (Bengal) — Vaisakha  K  14. 

Sayana  ekadasi — A§adha  S  11. 

Sltala  saptaml — Sravaija  K  7. 

Sltala  saptaml  (Orissa) — A§adha  K  7. 

Sltala  §a§thl  (Bengal) — Magha  S  6. 

Sltala  $a$thl  yatra  (Orissa) — Jyai§tha  S  6. 
Sltala$taml — Phalguna  K  8. 

Sita  navaml  (Bengal  &  Orissa)— Vaisakha  S  9. 
Slta§taml — Magha  K  8. 

Siva  damanaka  caturdasl  (Orissa) — Caitra  S  14. 

Siva  pavitraropaijam  (Orissa) — Sravaija  S14. 

Sivaratri — K  14  of  each  month  is  called  Sivaratri, 
Magha  K  14  (see  also  p.  108). 

Siva  layana  caturdasl  (Orissa) — A§a<Jha  S  14. 

iva  sayanotsava — Asaclha  S  15. 

Skanda  pancaml — A§a<Jha  S  5. 

Skanda  §a§thl  (Orissa) — Caitra  S  6. 

kanda  ?a?thl— Jyaijtha  S  6,  Ma^gaslrga  S  6- 
Skanda  gagthl  (Madras)— Ksrtika  S  6. 

Skanda  §a§fchi  (Bengal)— Phalguna  K  6. 


ALPHABETICAL  LIST  OP  FESTIVALS 


115 


S — coantd. . 

Snang  yatra  (Bengal  &  Orissa)— Jyaigtha  S  15. 

Somanatha  vrata  (Orissa) — Bhadra  S  6. 

Somanatha  vrata  samapana  (Orissa) — Asvina  S  10. 

Sravana  dvadasl— Bhadra  S  12,  when  combined 
with  nakgatra  Sravana. 

Sri  Jayantl  (S.  India) — K  8  of  solar  Bhadrapada 
(see  also  p.  106). 

£rl  Krgna  dvadasl — Agacjha  S  12. 

Sri  pancaml — Magha  S  5,  Caitra  S  5  (Lakgml). 

&rl  Rama  dvadasl — Jyaigtha  S  12. 

Sudasa  vrata  (Orissa) — S  10  of  any  month  falling 
on  Thursday. 

SQrya  paja  (Orissa) — Pauga  S  10. 

Snrya  gag<;hl — Bhadra  S  6,  Kartika  S  6. 

T 

Tala  navaml  (Bengal  &  Orissa) — Bhadra  S  9. 

Tapah  gag^hl  (Orissa) — Alvina  S  6. 

Thai  amavasya  (S.  India) — K  30  of  saura  Magha 
(see  p.  106). 

Thai  pagam '♦-Piigya  nakgatra  of  saura  MSgha 
(see  i5.  106). 

Tila  caturthl— Magha  S  4. 

Tila  samkranti — The  day  of  transit  of  the  sun  into 
Makara  of  the  religious  calendar. 

TrilocanagtamI  (Bengal) — Vaisakha  K  8. 

Tripurotsava — Kartika  S  15. 

Trispraa  mahadvadasl — When  11th,  12th  &  13th 
tithis  meet  in  an  ahoratra,  the  dvada&I  is 
called  Trisprsa  mahadvada&I  (see  p.  107). 

TriveijI  amavasya  (Orissa) — Pauga  K  30. 

TulasI  vivaha — Kartika  S  11. 

U 

Uma  caturthl  (Bengal  &  Orissa) — Jyaigtha  S  4. 

UnmilanI  mahadvadasl — When  11th  tithi  is  current 
at  sunrise  on  two  successive  days,  the 
second  day  is  called  UnmilanI  mahadvadasl. 

Upakarma  (S.  India) — Sravana  S  15  (see  also 
pp.  103  &  106  ). 

Upanga  lalita  vrata  (Maharastra) — Asvina  S  5. 

Utpanna  (Utpatti)  ekadasl — Kartika  K  11. 

Utthana  ekadasl — Kartika  S  11. 

V 

Vaikhanasa  dlpam  (  S.  India  ) — S  15  of  saura 
Margasirga*. 

Vaikurjtha  caturdasl — Kartika  S  14. 

Vaikuntfha  ekadasl  (Vaignava)  (Madras) — S  11  of 
saura  Pauga. 


VaiSakhi — The  day  of  transit  of  the  sun  into  Mega 
of  the  religious  calendar. 

VaiSakhl  pQrt)ima — VaiSakha  S  15. 

Vakula  amavasya  (Orissa)— Margasirga  K  30 
Vamana  dvadasl — Caitra  S  12. 

Vamana  jayantl— Bhadra  S  12. 

Vanjull  mahadvadasl — when  12th  tithi  is  current 
at  sunrise  on  two  successive  days  the 
first  day  is  called  Vanjull  mahadvadasl. 
Varada  caturthl — Bhadra  S  4. 

Varada  caturthl  (Bengal  &  Orissa)— Magha  S  4. 
Varaha  dvadasl — Magha  S  12. 

Varalakgml  vrata  (South  India) — Friday  in  £ukla- 
pak?a  in  the  month  of  lunar  Sravaija. 
Vargltaparambha  (Jain) — Phalguna  K  8. 

Var§Itapa  samapana  (Jain) — Vaisakha  S  3. 

VaruijI — Phalguna  K  13,  combined  with  nakjatra 
Satabhi§aj  (see  p.  105). 

Vardthinl  ekadasl — Caitra  K  11. 

Vasanta  pancaml — Magha  S  5. 

VasantI  paja  (Bengal)  -^-Caitra  S  7. 

Vasantotsava — Phalguna  K  1. 

Vata  savitrl  vrata — Vaisakha  K  30. 

Vata  savitrl  vrata  (Deccan) — Jyai$tha  S  15. 

Vidhana  saptaml — Magha  S  7. 

Vijaya  dasaml — Asvina  S  10. 

Vijaya  ekadasl — Magha  K  11. 

Vishu  (T.  C.  State) — The  day  of  transit  of  the 
sun  into  Mega  of  the  religious  calendar. 
Vigiju  damanaka  caturdasl — Caitra  S  14. 

Vigiju  parivartanotsava — Bhadra  S  12. 

Vigiju  pavitraropaijam — Sravana  S  12. 

Vigiju  sayanotsava — Agacjha  S  12. 

Vi  gnu  triratra — Kartika  S  9. 

Vignu  srnkhala  yoga — Bhadra  S  11  when  combined 
with  nakgatra  Sravana  and  12th  tithi. 
Visvakarma  pOja  (Bengal) — The  day  of  transit 
of  the  sun  into  Kanya  of  the  religious 
calendar. 

Vivasvat  saptaml — Aga<Jha  S  7. 

Vrndavana  dvadasl — Kartika  S  12. 

Vyanjana  dvadasl  (Orissa) — Margakrga  S  12. 

Vyasa  paja — Agacjba  S  15. 

Y 

Yaju  upakarma — see  p.  103. 

Yama  dlpadana — Asvina  K  13. 

Yama  dvitlya — Kartika  S  2. 

Yama  tarpana — Pauga  K  14. 

Yoginl  ekadasl — Jyaig^ha  K  11. 

Yugadi — see  p.  107. 


O.B. — 23 


116 


Sunrise  and  Sunset  for  certain  important  places 


(  Given  in  Indian  Standard  Time  ) 


Date 

Gauhati 
26°N  11' 

Calcutta  1 
22°N  35’  j 

Banajas 
25“N  20' 

Madras 
13°N  4’ 

Nagpur 
21°N  9 ' 

Delhi 
28“N  39 

/ 

Bombay 

18°N  58' 

Rise 

3 

Rise 

Set  | 

!B 

Set 

h  m 

h 

m 

h  m 

h 

m 

h  m 

h 

m 

h  m 

h 

m 

h  m 

h 

m 

h  m 

h 

m 

b  m 

h 

m 

Caitra 

1 

Mar. 

22(21) 

5  27 

17 

33 

5  41 

17 

47 

6  2 

18 

8 

6  14 

18 

19 

6  18 

18 

24 

6  25 

18 

31 

6  43 

18 

49 

6 

27(26) 

22 

36 

36 

48 

5  57 

10 

10 

19 

13 

25 

19 

34 

39 

50 

11 

Apr. 

i(0) 

16 

38 

31 

50 

52 

12 

7 

19 

9 

27 

14 

37 

35 

51 

16 

6(5) 

11 

40 

27 

52 

47 

15 

4 

20 

4 

28 

8 

39 

31 

52 

21 

11(10) 

6 

43 

22 

54 

41 

17 

6  0 

20 

6  0 

30 

6  2 

42 

27 

53 

26 

16(15) 

5  1 

45 

18 

55 

37 

19 

5  57 

20 

5  56 

31 

5  57 

45 

23 

55 

Vaifj&kha  1 

21 

4  56 

17 

47 

5  13 

17 

57 

5  32 

18 

21 

5  55 

18 

21 

5  52 

18 

33 

5  52 

18 

48 

6  19 

18 

56 

6 

26 

52 

50 

10 

17 

59 

28 

24 

52 

22 

48 

35 

47 

51 

16 

57 

11 

May 

1 

48 

52 

6 

18 

1 

24 

26 

50 

23 

45 

37 

43 

54 

13 

18 

59 

16 

6 

44 

55 

3 

4 

20 

29 

48 

24 

42 

39 

39 

18 

57 

10 

19 

1 

21 

11 

41 

17 

58 

5  0 

6 

17 

31 

46 

25 

39 

41 

35 

19 

0 

8 

2 

26 

16 

38 

18 

1 

4  58 

8 

14 

34 

45  i 

26 

37 

43 

32 

3 

6 

4 

31 

21 

36 

3 

56 

10 

12 

37 

44  ! 

27 

35 

45 

30 

6 

4 

6 

Jyaijtha 

5 

26 

4  34 

18 

6- 

4  54 

18 

13 

5  10 

18 

39 

5  43 

18 

29 

5  34 

18 

47 

5  28 

19 

8 

6  3 

19 

8 

10 

31 

33 

8 

53 

15 

9 

41 

43 

30 

33 

49 

26 

11 

2 

10 

15 

June 

5 

32 

10 

53 

17 

9 

44 

43 

32 

33 

51 

25 

13 

2 

12 

20 

10 

32 

13 

53 

19 

9 

46 

43 

33 

33 

53 

25 

16 

2 

13 

25 

15 

32 

14 

53 

20 

9 

48 

44 

35 

33 

55 

25 

18 

3 

15 

30 

20 

33 

16 

54 

22 

10 

49 

45 

36 

34 

56 

26  i 

19 

4 

16 

A?a4ha 

4 

25 

4  34 

18 

17 

4  55 

18 

23 

5  11 

18 

50 

5  46 

18 

37 

5  35 

18 

57 

5  27 

19 

20 

6  5 

19 

17 

9 

30 

36 

17 

56 

23 

12 

51 

47 

38 

37 

58 

29 

21 

6 

18 

14 

July 

5 

37 

17 

4  58 

24 

14 

51 

49 

38 

38 

58 

30 

21 

8 

18 

19 

10 

39 

17 

5  0 

23 

16 

50 

50 

38 

40 

58 

33 

20 

18 

24 

15 

42 

16 

2 

23 

18 

49 

51 

38 

42 

57 

35 

19 

11 

18 

29 

20 

44  ! 

14 

4 

21 

21 

48 

53 

38 

44 

56 

38 

17 

13 

17 

(srfivana 

3 

25 

i 

4  47  1 

18 

12 

5  6 

18. 

20 

5  23 

18 

46 

5  54 

18 

37 

5  46, 

18 

54 

5  40 

19 

15 

6  15 

19 

16 

8 

30 

49 

10 

8 

17 

25 

43 

55 

36 

48 

52 

43 

12 

16 

14 

13 

Aug. 

4 

51 

7 

10 

15 

28 

40 

56 

34 

50 

50 

46 

8 

18 

12 

18 

9 

m 

18 

3 

12 

12 

30 

37 

57 

32 

51 

47 

49 

5 

20 

9 

23 

14 

56 

17 

59 

14 

8 

32 

33 

58 

30 

53 

44 

51 

19 

0 

21 

6 

28 

19 

4  59 

55 

16 

4 

34 

29 

58 

27 

55 

40 

54 

18 

56 

22 

19 

3 

Bhadra 

2 

'24 

5  1 

17 

50 

5  18 

18 

0 

5  37 

18 

24 

5  59- 

18 

24 

5  56 

18 

36 

5  57 

18 

51 

6  24 

18 

59 

7 

29 

3 

45 

19 

17 

56 

39 

19 

59 

21 

58 

32 

5  59 

45 

25 

55 

12 

Sept. 

3 

5 

40 

21 

51 

41 

14 

59 

17 

5  59 

27 

6  2 

40 

25 

51 

17 

8 

7 

35 

22 

46 

42 

9 

59 

15 

6  0 

23 

4 

34 

26 

47 

22 

13 

9 

29 

24 

42 

44 

18 

4 

59 

11 

1 

18 

6 

28 

27 

43 

27 

18 

11 

24 

25 

36 

46 

17 

58 

59 

7 

3 

13 

9 

22 

28 

38 

Asvina 

1 

23 

5  13 

17 

18 

5  27 

17 

31 

5  48 

17 

53 

5  59 

18 

4 

6  4 

18 

9 

6  11 

18 

16 

6  29 

18 

34 

6 

28 

15 

13 

28 

27 

50 

48 

6  0 

18 

0 

5 

18 

4 

14 

10 

30 

29 

11 

Oct. 

3 

18 

7 

30 

22 

52 

42 

0 

17 

57 

7 

17 

59 

16 

18 

4 

31 

25 

16 

8 

20 

17 

2 

32 

17 

54 

37 

0 

54 

8 

55 

19 

17 

59 

32 

21 

21 

13 

22 

16 

57 

33 

12 

57 

34 

0 

50 

10 

50 

22 

53 

33 

17 

26 

18 

25 

52 

35 

8 

5  59 

27 

1 

48 

11 

46 

25 

48 

35 

13 

K&rtika 

1 

23 

5  28 

16 

47 

5  38 

17 

4 

6  2 

17 

23 

6  2 

17 

45 

6  14 

17 

43 

6  28 

17 

43 

6  37 

18 

10 

6 

28 

31 

43 

40 

17 

1 

5 

19 

3 

43 

16 

39 

31 

39 

38 

7 

11 

Nov. 

2 

34 

40 

43 

16 

58 

8 

16 

4 

41 

18 

36 

35 

35 

40 

4 

16 

7 

37 

36 

46 

55 

-  11 

12 

6 

40 

21 

34 

39 

31 

43 

2 

21 

12 

41 

■ 

34 

49 

53 

14 

10 

8 

38 

24 

32 

42 

28 

45 

18 

0 

26 

17 

44 

32 

52 

51 

18 

8 

10 

38 

27 

31 

46 

26 

48 

17 

59 

Agraha. 

1 

22 

5  48 

16 

30 

5  55 

16 

50 

6  21 

17 

7 

6  12 

17 

38 

6  30 

17 

30 

6  50 

17 

24 

6  51 

17 

59 

6 

27 

52 

30 

5  59 

50 

25 

6 

15 

38 

33 

29 

54 

23 

54 

59 

11 

Dec. 

2 

55 

29 

6  2 

i 

50 

29 

6 

17 

39 

36 

30 

6  58 

23 

6  57 

17 

59 

16 

7 

5  59 

30 

5 

50 

32 

6 

20 

40 

39 

30 

7  2 

23 

7  0 

1  1» 

0 

21 

12 

6  2 

31 

8 

| 

52 

35 

7 

23 

42 

43 

32 

5 

24 

3 

1 

26 

17 

5 

33 

11 

l 

53 

39 

9 

26 

44 

46 

34 

9 

25 

6 

3 

Pauja 

1 

22 

6  8 

16 

34 

6  14 

I  16 

56 

6  41 

17 

11 

6  28 

17 

46 

6  48 

17 

36 

7  11 

17 

27 

7  9 

18 

5 

6 

Jan. 

27 

10 

37 

16 

1  16 

58 

43 

14 

30 

49 

50 

38 

14 

30 

11 

8 

n 

1 

12 

41 

18 

17 

1 

45 

17 

33 

I 

52 

52 

41 

15 

34 

13 

11 

16 

6 

13 

44 

20 

5 

47 

21 

35 

55 

54 

45 

16 

37 

15 

14 

21 

11 

14 

48 

20 

8 

47 

24 

36 

1  17 

58 

55 

48 

17 

41 

16 

17 

26 

16 

14 

51 

21 

12 

47 

28 

37 

18 

0 

55 

51 

17 

45 

16 

20 

Magha 

i 

21 

6  13 

!  16 

55 

6  20 

17 

15 

6  47 

17 

32 

6  37 

18 

3 

6  55 

17 

55 

7  16 

17 

49 

7  16 

18 

24 

6' 

26 

12 

16 

59 

19 

18 

45 

35 

37 

5 

54 

!  17 

57 

14 

53 

16 

26 

11 

Feb. 

31 

10 

17 

3 

18 

22 

43 

39 

37 

8 

53 

i  18 

1 

12 

17 

57 

15 

30 

16 

5 

^  V 

7 

16 

25 

41 

43 

36 

10 

51 

i 

4 

9 

18 

1 

13 

32 

21 

10 

4 

10 

13 

28 

38 

46 

35 

12 

49 

7 

6 

5 

11 

35 

26 

15 

6  1 

14 

10 

31 

35 

50 

33 

13 

46 

10 

7  2 

9 

9- 

37 

PhSIguna  1 

20 

5  57 

17 

17 

6  7 

17 

34 

6  31 

17 

53 

6  31 

18 

15 

6  43 

18 

12 

6  57 

18 

13 

7  6 

18 

39 

o 

Mar 

25 

53 

20 

6  3 

36 

.  27 

56 

29 

16 

39 

15 

53 

16 

7  3 

41 

11 

2(1) 

48 

23 

5  59 

39 

22 

17 

58 

26 

16 

36 

17 

48 

6  59 

43 

16 

7(6) 

43 

26 

55 

41 

18 

18 

1 

23 

17 

.  31 

18 

42 

23 

56 

45 

21 

12(11) 

38 

28 

50 

43 

13 

3 

20 

18 

27 

20 

37 

26 

52 

46 

26 

j  Mar 

17(16) 

33 

31 

46 

45 

8 

6 

17 

18 

2? 

22 

30 

28 

48 

• 

47 

Caitra 

i 

22(21) 

5  27 

17 

33 

5  41 

17 

46 

6  2 

18 

8 

6  14 

18 

19 

6  18 

18 

23 

6  25 

18 

31 

6  43 

1  18 

49 

Note.— The  timings  of  sunrise  and  sunset  relate  to  the  appearance  of  the  centre  of  the  sun  on  the  horizon  as  affected  by  refraction. 


LIST  OF  HOLIDAYS 

Lists  of  Holidays  for  the  five  years  from  1954:55  (Saka  1876)  to  1958*1959  (Saka  1880)  have  been  prepared  on  the 
basis  of  the  Reformed  Calendar  and  are  given  below.  The  festivals  have  been  arranged  according  to  the  Indian  year 
which  starts  from  March  22  (or  21)  the  day  after  the  vernal  equinox,  and  ends  with  March  21  (or  20)  next  year  of  the 
English  calendar.  The  holidays  have  been  shown  by  the  dates  of  the  English  calendar  which  can  easily  be  converted 
into  the  dates  of  our  Indian  calendar. 

Two  new  holidays,  vix.,  Indian  New  Year’s  day  (March  22  or  21)  and  Mahavisuva  day  or  Year-ending  day  (March 
21  or  20),  have  been  suggested  for  observance  as  all-India  holidays,  and  the  New-Year  s  days  of  different  States  so  long 
observed  on  different  dates  have  been  omitted.  All  the  holidays  observed  in  different  States  have  been  included  in  the 
lists,  as  far  as  possible,  except  those  of  Jews  and  a  few  holidays  of  some  States  for  which  the  criterion  was  not  available. 
The  festivals  of  Hindus  (including  Sikhs  and  Jains)  have  been  given  in  the  general  tables  and  those  of  Moslems  and 


Christians  have  been  shown  separately. 

CONSOLIDATED  LIST  OF  HOLIDAYS  FOR  ALL-  STATES  OF  INDIA 
A.-Fixed  Holidays  and  Solar  Festivals 


Festivals 

States  having  holidays 

Criterion 

1954-55 
^aka  1876 

1955-56 
£aka  1877 

1956-57 
£iaka  1878 

1957-58 
f^aka  1879  . 

1958-59 
£aka  1880 

1. 

Indian  New  Year’s 
Day* 

Gcrot.  of  India  and  all 

States 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  21 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  22 

2. 

Vaisakhi 

Govt,  of  India,  East  Pun¬ 
jab,  Jammu  &  Kashmir, 
Mysore,  PEPSU,  Ajmer, 
Bhopal,  Bilaspur,  Delhi 
and  Himachal  Pradesh 

Day  of  transit 
of  the  Sun 
in  Mesa  of 
the  religious 
calendar 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  13 

3. 

Cheiraoba 

Manipur 

Day  of  transit 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  14 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  13 

Babag  Bihu  j 

Assam 

of  the  Sun  j 

n 

n 

w 

Vishu 

Travancore-Cochin 

in  Me?a  of 

♦J 

w 

♦» 

V 

Mesa  sariikrapti 

W.  Bengal  &  Tripura 

the  religious 
calendar 

♦J 

y* 

» 

»  i 

» 

4.. 

Tilak  Commemora- 
ation  day 

Madhya  Pradesh 

Fixed 

Aug.  1 

Aug.  1 

Aug.  1 

Aug.  1 

Aug.  1 

5. 

1 

Independence  Day 

Govt,  of  India  and  all 
States 

Fixed 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

6. 

Keil  Muhurth 

Goorg  1 

j*  Fixed 

Sep.  3 

Sep.  3 

Sep.  3 

Sep.  3 

Sep.  3 

7. 

H.  H.  Birthday 

Bhopal 

Fixed 

Sep.  9 

Sep.  9 

Sep.  9 

Sep.  9 

Sep.  9 

8. 

Samadhi  day  of 
Narayana  Guru 

Travancore-Cochin 

Fixed 

Sep.  21 

Sep.  21 

Sep.  21 

Sep.  21 

Sep.  21 

9. 

Mahatma  Gandhi’s 
Birthday. 

Govt,  of  India  and  all 
States 

Fixed 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

10. 

Kaveri  samkramana 

Coorg 

Day  of  transit 
of  the  Sim 
in  Tula  of 
the  religious 
calendar 

Oct.  17 

Oct.  17 

Oct.  16 

Oct.  17 

Oct.  17 

11. 

Death  Anniversary 
of  Lala  Lajpat  Rai 

East  Punjab 

Fixed 

Nov.  17 

Nov.  17 

Nov.  17 

Nov.  17 

Nov.  17 

12. 

H.  H.  Birthday 

PEPSU 

Fixed 

Jan.  7 

Jan.  7 

Jan.  7 

Jan.  7 

Jan.  7 

* 


Proposed  all-Iiidia  holiday. 


U8  REPORT  OF  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 

CONSOLIDATED  LIST  OF  HOLIDAYS 
A. — Fixed  Holidays  and  Solar  Festivals— contd. 


Festivals 

States  having  holidays 

Criterion 

1954-55 
£aka  1876 

1956-56 
3aka  1877 

1956-57 
S^aka  1878 

1957-58 
£aka  1879 

1958-59 
(3aka  1880 

18.  Baba  Ala  Singhji’s 

PEPSU 

Fixed 

Jan.  8 

Jan.  8 

Jan.  8 

Jan.  8 

Jan.  8 

day 

1 

14.  Bhogi 

Madras 

Day  before 

Pongal 

Jan.  13 

Jan.  13  ' 

Jan.  12 

Jan.  13 

Jan.  13 

15.  Pongal 

Madras 

Day  of  transit 
of  the  Sun 

Jan.  14 

Jan.  14 

Jan.  13 

Jan.  14 

Jan.  14 

Tai  Pongal 

T  ravancore-Cochin. 

in  Makara  of 
the  religious 
calendar 

» 

ft 

» 

ft 

MSghI ' 

PEPSU,  Himachal  Pradesh 

ft 

* 

ft 

ft 

ft 

» 

Magh  Bibu 

Assam 

f» 

ft 

ft 

ft 

it 

ft 

Makaradi 

Rajasthan,  Saurashtra, 

ft 

ft 

ft 

ft 

ft 

If 

Coorg,  Kutch,  Manipur, 
and  Vindhya  Pradesh 

1 

Tila  Samkr  oti 

Hyderabad,  Madhya  Bharat 

0 

ft 

ft 

ft 

ft 

If 

1 

and  Bhopal 

16.  Mattu  Pongal 

Madras 

Day  after  Pongal 

Jan.  15 

Jan  15 

Jan.  14 

Jan.  15 

Jan.  15 

17.  Netaji’s  Birthaay 

West  Bengal 

Fixed 

Jan.  23 

Jan.  23 

Jan.  23 

Jan.  23 

Jan.  23 

18.  Republic  Day 

Govt,  of  India  and  all 

Fixed 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

States 

19.  H.  Swatantra  Divas 

Himachal  Pradesh 

Fixed 

Feb.  18 

Feb.  18 

Feb.  ■  18 

Feb.  18 

Feb.  18 

20.  Mahavifuva  day* 

Govt,  of  India  and  all 

Mar.  21 

Mar.  20 

Mar.  21 

Mar.  21 

Mar.  21 

(Year-ending  day) 
Nauroj. 

States 

*  Proposed  all-India  holiday 


N.B.  The  holidays  of  Madras  include  those  of  the  newly  formed  Andhra  State. 


LIST  OS'  HOLIDAYS 

CONSOLIDATED:  LIST  OF  HOLIDAYS 
B. -Lunar  Festivals 


Festivals 


1.  Vijaya  Govindaji 

Halenkar 


2.  VSruiji 


3.  SthSpana  Navaratra 


4.  Sarhul 

5.  BamanavamI 


Manipur 


Manipur 


Criterion 

Lunar  (Mukhya)  — — - 

Month  &  Tithi  1954-55 
_ ’  Saka  1876 

Phalguna  K  5  !  Mar.  24, 
j  1954 

|  Mar.  13, 

|  1955 

Phalguna  K  13  I  Apr.  1 
with  Satabhisaj  > 
nakijatra  j 


Dates  of  Feetivala 


6.  Mahavira  Jayantf 


7. '.  Oli  ends  (Jain) 

8. ‘:  Tithi  of  Deva 

Damodara 

9.  Aksaya  Trtlya 
10.  Buddha  Purnima 

Buddha  JayantI 


11.  Pratap  JayantI 

12.  Guru  Arjun  Dev’s 

Martyrdom  Day 
IS.  Dasahara 

14.  Nirjala  (Bhlm) 

Agiaras 

15.  Bathayatra 

16.  -  Kharci  puja 

17.  Punarvatra  ■ 

18.  H.  H.  Maharaja’s 

Birthday 


Bombay,  Jammu  &  Kashmir,  Caitra  S  1 
Madhya  Bharat  and 
Bajasthan 

Bihar  Caitra  S  3 

Govt,  of  India  and  all  Caitra  S  9 
States  except  Assam, 

Madras,  'Orissa,  West 
Bengal,  Travancore- 
Cochin.Coorg,  Manipur 
and  Tripura 

All  States  except  Assam,  Caitra  S  13 
Madras,  Orissa,  West 
Bengal,  Mysore, 

Travancore  -  Cochin, 

Bilaspur,  Coorg,  Hima¬ 
chal  Pradesh,  Manipur 
and  Tripura 


Saurashtra 

Assam  t 

Manipur 

Govt,  of  India,  Assam, 
Bihar,  Uttar  Pradesh, 
Jammu  &  Kashmir, 
Bajasthan,  Ajmer, 
Bhopal  and  Bilaspur 
Bajasthan 


West  Bengal 
Kutch 


Manipur 
Tripura 
West  Bengal 
Manipur 
Mysore 


"Vaisakha 


Bathayatra 


1955-56 

1  1956-57 

1957-58 

1958-59 

Saka  1877 

Saka  1878 

Saka  1879 

Saka  188( 

Mar.  31, 

1956 
Mar.  20, 

1957 

Mar.  10, 
1958 

i 

Mar.  22, 
1955 

Apr.  8 

i 

! 

Mar.  29, 

1957 
Mp,r.  18, 

1958 

• 

Mar.  24, 
1955 

Apr.  12 

Apr.  1, 

1957 
Mar.  21, 

1958 

Mar.  26 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  3 

Mar.  23 

Apr.  1 

Apr.  19 

Apr.  8 

Mar.  29 

Apr.  5 

Apr.  23 

i 

Apr.  12 

i  Apr.  2 

Apr.  7 

1 

Apr.  25 

Apr.  14 

Apr.  4 

l 

Apr.  23 

May  11 

Apr.  30 

Apr.  19 

Apr.  25  j 

May  13 

May  2 

Apr.  22 

May  6  | 

May  24 

May  13 

May  3 

May  24 

June  11 

June  1 

May  21 

May  25 

June  12  i 

June  2 

May  22 

May  31 

June  17 

June  7 

May  28 

June  1 

1 

June  18 

June  8 

May  29 

June  21 

July  9 

June  29 

June  19 

June  27 

July  15 

July  4 

June  24 

June  29  | 

July  17 

July  7 

June  27 

July  11 

July  29 

July  18 

July  7 

120 


REPORT  OP  THE  CALENDAR,  REPORM  COMMITTEE 


CONSOLIDATED  LIST  OF  HOLIDAYS 
B.-Liinar  Festivals — contd. 


Festivals 

States  having  holidays 

Criterion 
Lunar  (Mnkhya) 
Month  &  Tithi 

19.  Ker  piija 

Tripura 

First  Tuesday 
or  Saturday 
after  14  days 
from  Kharci 
puja. 

20.  Karkataka  Vavu 

Travaneore-Coehin 

K  30  of  Saura 
fsravana 

21.  Naga  PaScami 

Madhya  Pradesh 

f>r8$Kija  S  5 

22.  Jhulanayatra 

West  Bengal  &  Manipur 

SrStrana  S  11 

23.  Raksa  Bandhana 

Madhya  Pradesh,  Uttar 
Pradesh,  Hyderabad, 

Jammu  &  Kashmir, 

Madhya  Bharat,  Raja¬ 
sthan,  Ajmer,  Bhopal, 
Himachal  Pradesh  and 
Vindya  Pradesh 

^ratana  S  15 

Solono 

PEP8U  and  Delhi 

Cocoanut  Day 

Bombay,  Saurasthra  and 
Rutch 

TJpakarma 

Mysore  and  Coorg 

w 

Avani  Avittam 

Travaneore-Coehin 

w 

24.  Avani  Avittam 

Madras 

- 

25.  Tithi  of  Sri  Madhava 
Deva 

Assam 

K  5  of  Saura 
Bhadra 

26.  fntala  Saptami  (Shili 
satam) 

Saurashtra  and  Kutch 

i^ravana  K  7 

27.  Janmastami,  Gokula- 

Govt,  of  India  and  all 

Sravana  K  8 

stami,  fSri  Krsna 
jayanti 

States  except  Assam, 
Madras,  Mysore,  West 
Bengal,  Orissa  and 

Travaneore-Coehin 

* 

-w. 

janmastami 

West  Bengal  and  Orissa 

n 

Janmastami 

Assam 

K  8  of  Saura 
Bhadra 

Sri  Jayanti 

Madras 

n 

Astami  Rohini 

Travaneore-Coehin 

K  8  of  Saura 
Bhadra  with 
Rohini  nak- 
§atra 

28.  Jain  Festival 

Bombay  and  Saurashtra 

i^ravarta  K  13 

29.  Jain  Festival 

Bombay  and  Saurashtra 

Sravana  K  30 

80.  Tithi  of  $ri  Sankara 
Deva 

Assam 

S  2  of  Saura 
Bhadra 

81.  Gauri  Festival 

Mysore 

Bhadra  S  3 

Dates  of  Festivals 


1954-55  1955-56  1956-57  1957-58  1958-59 

Saka  1876  Saka  1877  Saka  1878  Saka  1879  Saka  1880 
July  24  July  12  July  31  July  20  July  8 


July  29  July  19  Aug.  6  July  27  Aug.  15 


Aug.  3 
Aug.  10 
Aug.  14 


Aug.  21 


Aug.  26 
Aug.  28 
Aug.  30 

Aug.  31 


July  24 
July  30 
Aug.  3 


Aug.  14 


Aug.  14  Sep.  1 

Aug.  18  Sep.  6 

Aug.  20  Aug.  10 

Aug.  21  Aug.  11 


Aug.  15 
Aug.  17 
Aug.  19 


Aug.  10 
Aug.  17 
Aug.  21 


Sep.  3 
Sep.  4 
Sep.  6 


July  31 
Aug.  6 
Aug.  10 


Aug.  3  Aug.  21  Aug.  10 

Sep.  1  Aug.  21  Sep.  7 

Sep.  6  Aug.  26  Sep.  14 

Aug.  10  Aug.  28  Aug.  17 

Aug.  11  Aug.  29  Aug.  19 


Aug.  10  »  Aug.  18 

Sep.  9  Aug.  29  Aug.  19 


Aug.  23 
Aug.  25 
Aug.  27 


Aug.  19 
Aug,  25 
Aug.  29 


Au 

Aug.  28 
Sep.  3 
Sep.  5 

Sep.  6 


Sep.  ■  6 


Sep.  11 
Sep.  13 
Sep.  15 


Sep.  19  |  Sep.  7  Aug.  27  I  Sep,.  16 


LIST  OF  HOLIDAYS  121 

CONSOLIDATED  LIST  OF  HOLIDAYS 
B.-Lunar  Festivals — contd. 


Festivals 

States  having  holidays 

Criterion 

Dates  of  Festivals 

Lunar  (Mukhya] 
Month  &  Tithi 

1954-55 

Saka 1876 

1955-56 
Saka 1877 

1956-57 
^aka  1878 

1957-58 
^aka  1879 

1958-59 
$aka  1880 

32.  Gapesa  Caturthi, 

Bombay,  Madhya  Pradesh, 

Bhadra  S  4 

Sep.  1 

Sep.  19 

Sep.  8 

Aug.  28 

Sep.  16 

Yinayaka  Caturthi 

Madras,  Hyderabad, 

Madhya  Bharat,  Mysore, 

Rajasthan,  Saurashtra, 

i 

j 

Trava  ncore-C  o  c  h  i  n 

1 

1 

Bhopal,  Coorg  and  Kutch 

1 

1 

1 

I 

Ganesa  Caturthi 

Orissa 

•• 

1 

” 

Sep.  20 

If 

»» 

ft 

« 

83.  Sariivatsari  and 

Bombay,  Saurashtra  and 

Bhadra  S  5 

Sep.  2 

Sep.  21 

Sep.  9 

Aug.  29 

Sep.  17 

Paryusana  Parva 

Kutch 

(Jain) 

■ 

34.  RSdhasfaml 

Manipur 

Bhadra  S  8 

Sep.  5 

Sep.  24 

Sep.  12 

Sep.  1 

Sep.  20 

35.  First  Onam  Day 

Travancore-Cochin 

Day  before 

Sep.  9 

Aug.  30 

Aug.  19 

Sep.  5 

Aug.  26 

• 

Thiru  Onam 

day 

36.  Thiru  Onam  Day 

Travancore-Cochin 

Sravana  naksatra 

Sep.  10 

Aug.  31 

Aug.  20 

Sep.  6 

Aug.  27 

in  Saura  Bhadra 

Sukla  pak?a 

37.  Third  Onam  Day 

Travancore-Cochin  j 

Day  after 

Sep.  11 

Sep.  1 

Aug.  21 

Sep.  7 

Aug.  28 

Thiru  Onam 

Day 

38.  Fourth  Onam  Day 

Travancore-Cochin 

Two  days  after 

|  Sep.  12 

Sep.  2 

Aug.  22 

Sep.  8 

Aug.  29 

' 

Thiru  Onam 

Day 

39.  ‘Heikra  Hitomba 

Manipur 

Bhadra  S  11 

Sep.  9 

Sep.  27 

Sep.  15 

Sep.  4 

Sep.  23 

Dol  Gyaras 

Madhya  Bharat  ' 

»> 

» 

y> 

» 

» 

40.  Ananta  CaturdasI 

Hyderabad,  Rajasthan, ' 

Bhadra  S  14 

Sep.  11 

Sep.  30 

Sep.  18 

Sep.  7 

Sep.  26 

Ajmer  and  Delhi 

41.  Sri  Narayaria  Guru 

Madras 

Satabhisaj 

Sep.  12 

Sep.  2 

Aug.  22 

Sep.  8 

Aug.  29 

Dev’s  Birthday 

naksatra  in 

1 

saura  Bhadra 

1 

42.  H.  II.  Birthday 

Kutch 

Bhadra  K  13 

Sep.  24 

Oct.  13 

Oct.  2  j 

Sep.  22 

Oct.  11 

3.  Mahalaya  Amavasya, 

Madhya  Pradesh,  Madras, 

Bhadra  K  30 

| 

Sep.  26  j 

Oct.  15 

Oct.  3 

Sep.  23 

Oct.  12 

Pity  moksa  Amavasya , 

Orissa,  West  Bengal, 

I 

Pitr  Amavasya,  Sarva 

Jammu  &  Kashmir, 

i 

Pitr  Amavasya 

Madhya  Bharat, Mysore, 

| 

Rajasthan,  Coorg  and 

1 

1 

| 

. 

Tripura 

| 

l 

! 

I 

Tarpana  Layba  (2nd 

Manipur 

H 

l 

» 

Oct.  4 

1 

» 

day) 

1 

44.  Commencement  of 

Mysore  and  Rajasthan 

Asvina  S  1 

Sep.  28 

Oct.  16 

Oct.  5 

Sep.  24 

Oct.  13 

Dasahara,  Sthapana  I  j  ‘  | 

Navaratra  I  j 


12?  REPORT  OP  THE  OA*BlH>AR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 

CONSOLIDATED  LIST  OF  HOLIDAYS 
Lunar  festivals — conid. 


Festivals 

States  having  holidays  1 

L 

Criterion 

Dates  of  Festivals 

Lunar  (Mukhya) 
Month  &  Tithi 

1954-55 
^aka  1876 

1955-56 
^aka  1877 

1956-57 
^aka  1878 

1957-58 
$aka  1879 

1958-59 
3aka  1880 

45.  Durga  Puja 

i 

Assam,  Bihar,  Orissa,  j 

Asvina  S  7 — 10 

Oot.  4-7 

Oct.  23-26 

Oct.  11-14 

Sep.  30—  i 

Oct.  19-22 

West  Bengal,  Manipur  1 

Oct.  3 

and  Tripura 

Dussera 

Govt,  of  India,  East 

Asvina  S  7 — 10 

Oct.  4-7 

Oct.  23-26 

Oct.  11-14 

Sep.  30— 

Oct.  19-21 

Punjab,  Uttar  Pradesh, 

Oct.  3 

PEPSU,  Rajasthan, 

Ajmer,  Bilaspur,  Delhi, 

Himachal  Pradesh  and  i 

Vindhya  Pradesh. 

Ayudha  Puja 

Madras  J 

» 

» 

n 

» 

W 

Ayudha  Puja 

Coorg 

Asvina  S  7 

Oct.  4 

Oct.  23 

Oct.  11 

Sep.  30 

Oct.  19 

Durga  ijtaml 

Saurashtra  &  Travancore-  j 

Asvina  S  8 

Oct.  5 

Oct.  24 

Oct.  12 

Oct.  1 

Oct.  20 

Cochin 

• 

Dussera 

Bhopal 

» 

V 

v> 

« 

MahanavamI 

Jammu  and  Kashmir, 

Asvina  S  9 

Oct.  6 

Oct.  25 

Oct.  13 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  20 

Mysore  and  Travancore- 

Cochin  1 

1 

Dussera 

.  | 

Hyderabad,  Madhya  j 

n 

Y> 

» 

» 

» 

W 

Bharat  and  Bhopal 

I 

| 

Vijaya  Dasami 

Mysore,  Saurashtra, 

Asvina  S  10 

!  Oct.  7 

Oct.  26 

Oct.  14 

Oct.  3 

Oct.  21 

'  and  Travancore-Cochin 

! 

1 

Dussera 

Bombay,  Madhya  Pradesh 

I  *  " 

» 

i 

! 

n 

» 

w 

Hyderabad,  Jammu  4 

1 

i 

i 

Kashmir,  Madhya 

1 

Bharat,  Bhopal  and 

1 

Kutch 

1 

1 

1 

i 

46.  Bharat  Milap 

Delhi 

i 

|  Asvina  S  11 

Oct.  8 

Oct.  27 

Oct.  15 

Oct.  4 

Oct.  23 

47.  Lakfjmi  Puja 

Assam,  Bihar,  Orissa, 

,  Asvina  S  15 

1 

!  Oct.  ii 

Oct.  30 

Oct.  19 

Oct.  8 

Oct.  27 

West  Bengal,  Manipur 

1 

i 

j  and  Tripura 

| 

i 

i 

| 

Kumara  Utsava 

j  Orissa 

i 

.  w 

» 

n 

48.  Maharsi  •  Valmiki’s 

East  Punjab,  PEPSU  and 

Asvina  S  15 

Oct.  12 

Oct.  31 

Oct.  19 

Oct.  8 

Oct.  27 

Birthday 

Himachal  Pradesh 

49.  Dhan  Teras 

'  Stjjir&shtra  and  Kutch 

Asvina  K  13 

Oct.  24 

Nov.  11 

Oct.  31 

Oct.  21 

Nov.  9 

50.  Naraka  Caturdasi, 

Bombay,  Mysore,  Sau-" 

Asvina  K  14 

Oct.  25 

Nov.  13 

Nov.  1 

Oct.  22 

Nov.  10 

Kali  Caudas 

rashtra  and  Kutch 

Kali  Puja 

Assam,  West  Bengal 

Asvina  K  30 

Oet.  25 

Nov.  13 

Nov.  1 

Oct.  22 

Nov.  10 

and  Tripura 

LUST-  OF  HOLIDAYS 

CONSOLIDATED  LIST  OF  HOLIDAYS 
6. -Lunar  Festivals — contd. 


123 


- - — - r 

Criterion 

Dates  of  Festivals 

Festivals 

States  having  holidays  I 

junar  (Mukhya) 

1954-55 

1955-56 

1956-57 

1957-58 

1958-59 

Month  &  'i'ithi 

is&ka  1876 

6aka  1877 

i5aka  1878 

$aka  1879  1 

^aka  1880 

51.  Dipavali,  Diwali 

Madhya  Pradesh,  Madras, 

Asvina  K  14 

Oct.  25 

Nov.  13 

Nov.  1 

Oct.  21 

Nov.  ""10 

East  Punjab,  Hydera¬ 
bad  and  Travancore- 
Cochin 

Dipavali,  Diwali, 

Govt,  of  India  and  all 

Asvina  K  30 

Oct.  26 

Nov.  14 

Nov.  2 

Oct.  22 

Nov.  10 

Dipamalika 

States  except  Assam, 
West  Bengal,  Travan- 
core-Cochin,  Bhopal 

and  Tripura 

Dipavali,  Diwali 

Govt,  of  India,  Bombay, 

Kartika  S  1 

Oct.  27 

Nov.  15 

Nov.  3 

Oct.  23 

Nov.  11 

Uttar  Pradesh, Madhya 
Bharat,  Bajasthan, 

Ajmer,  Bhopal,  Bilas- 
pur,  Himachal  Pradesh 
and  Vindhya  Pradesh 

1 

Dipavali,  Diwali 

Uttar  Pradesh,  Madhya 

Kartika  S  2 

Oct.  28 

[  Nov.  16  j 

Nov.  4 

Oct.  24 

Nov 

Bharat,  Rajasthan 

and  Bhopal 

52.  Dali  Puja 

Mysore,  PEPSU,  Delhi 

Kartika  S  1 

Oct.  27 

Nov.  15 

Nov.  3 

Oct.  23 

Nov.  11 

Govardhana  Puja 

and  Manipur 

: 

53.  Yama  Dvitiya 

Ajmer  and  Vindhya  Pradesh 

Kartika  S  2 

Oct.  28 

Nov.  16 

Nov.  4 

Oct.  24 

Nov.  12 

Bhratr  Dvitiya 

West  Bengal  and  Manipur 

y> 

* 

» 

9 

9 

9 

Dwat  Puja 

Bihar 

9 

9 

9 

9 

9 

Tikka  Ceremony 

Himachal  Pradesh 

* 

9 

9 

9 

9 

9 

54.  Chhat 

Bihar 

Kartika  S  6 

Nov.  1 

Nov.  20 

Nov.  8 

Oct.  28 

Nov.  16 

55.  Gosthastami 

Manipur 

Kartika  S  8 

Nov.  4 

Nov.  23 

Nov.  11 

»t2ISil§g 

Nov.  18 

56.  Jagaddhatri  Puja 

West  Bengal  and  Tripura 

Kartika  S  9 

Nov.  5 

Nov.  24 

Nov.  12 

Oct.  31 

Nov.  19 

57.  Deo  Prabodhani 

Vindhya  Pradesh 

Kartika  S  11 

Nov.  7 

Nov.  26 

Nov.  14 

Nov.  3 

Nov.  21 

Ekadasi 

58.  Guru  Nanak’s 

Govt,  of  India,  Bombay, 

Kartika  S  15 

Nov.  10 

Nov.  29 

Nov.  18 

Nov.  7 

Nov.  26 

Birthday 

East  Punjab,  Uttar 
Pradesh,  Hyderabad, 
Jammu  &  Kashmir, 
Madhya  Bharat, 
PEPSU,  Bajasthan, 
Saurashtra,  Bhopal, 
Bilaspur,  Delhi, 

Himachal  Pradesh  and 
Vindhya  Pradesh 

■ 

Rasa  Pfirmma 

Orissa 

9 

« 

9 

» 

» 

9 

Katkiki  Purnima 

Uttar  Pradesh 

9 

* 

9 

• 

9 

9 

Jain  Festival 

Bombay  and  Saurashtra 

9 

* 

9 

9 

9 

9 

Puqkar  Fair 

59.  Sahid  Day  of  Guru 

Ajmer 

East  Punjab,  PEPSU  and 

9 

Marga.  S  5 

t 

* 

Nov.  30 

9 

Dec.  19 

9 

Dec.  7 

9 

Nov.  26 

9 

Dec.  15 

Teg  Bahadur 

60.  Subrahmanya  $&?thi 

Delhi 

Coorg 

MSrga.  S  6 

Dec.  1 

Dec.  20 

Dec.  8 

■ 

Nov.  27 

Dec.  16 

C.R.— 24 


124 


BEPORT  OF  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


CONSOLIDATED  LIST  OF  HOLIDAYS 


B.-Lunar  Festivals — concld. 


_ 

Festivals 

States  having  holidays 

Criterion 
Lunar  (Mukhya)' 
Month  &  Tithi 

61.  Guru  Govinda  Singh’s 

Bihar,  East  Punjab, 

i 

Pausa  S  7 

1 

Birthday 

Uttar  Pradesh,  Hyde¬ 
rabad,  Jammu  & 

Kashmir,  Madhya 

Bharat,  PEPSU, 

Rajasthan,  .  Ajmer, 

Delhi,  Himachal 

Pradesh  and  Yindhya 
Pradesh 

62.  VaikuQtha  EkadasI 

Madras1 

S  11  of  Saura 
Pau$a 

63.  Mauni  Amavasya 

Uttar  Pradesh 

Pau?a  K  30 

,Makara  Vavu 

Travancore-Cochin 

K  30  of  Saura 
Magha 

64.  Sri  Pancami 

Assam,  West  Bengal, 
Manipur  and  Tripura 

Magha  S  5 

Vasanta  Pancami  * 

Bihar,  Orissa,  East 

Punjab,  Uttar  Pradesh, 
Jammu  &  Kashmir, 
PEPSU,  Rajasthan, 
Ajmer,  Bhopal,  Delhi, 
Himachal  Pradesh  and 
Yindhya  Pradesh 

» 

65.  Guru  Ravi  Das’s  j 

Birthday 

East  Punjab,  PEPSU  and 
Himachal  Pradesh 

Magha  S  15 

66.  Mahafiivaratr 

Govt,  of  India  and  all 
States  except  Tripura 

Magha  K  14 

67.  Dolayatrs 

Assam,  Orissa,  West 

Bengal,  Manipur  and 
Triphra 

*  Phalguna  S  15 

Holi  Feast 

Mysore 

” 

68.  Holi,  1st  day 

Govt,  of  India  and  all 
States  except  Assam, 
Bombay,  Madhya 

Pradesh,  Madras, 

Orissa,  West  Bengal, 
Mysore,  Travancore- 
Cochin,  Coorg  and 
Tripura 

1 

n 

Holi,  2nd  day 

Govt,  of  India,  and  all 

1  .v  States  except  Assam, 
Madras,  West  Bengal, 
Mysore,  Travancore- 
Cochin,  Coorg  and 
Tripura 

Day  after  Holi 
1st  Day 

Dates  of  Festivals 


1954-55 
^aka  1876 

Jan.  1 


Jan.  5 
Jan.  23 

Jan.  28 
Jan.  28 


Feb.  6 
Feb.  20 
Mar.  8 


Mar.  8 


Mar.  9 


1955-56 
Saka  1877 


Jan.  20 


Dec.  25 

Feb.  11 
» 

Feb.  16 
Feb.  16 


Feb.  25 
Mar.  10 


1956-57 
i^aka  1878 

Jan.  8 


Jan.  12 
Jan.  30 

Feb.  5 
Feb.  5 


Feb.  14 
Feb.  27 

Mar.  26, 

1956 
Mar.  16, 

1957 


Mar.  26, 
'  1956 

Mar.  15 
1957 


1957-58 


1958-59 


f^aka  1879  }  f^aka  1880 


Dec.  28 


Jan.  1 


Jan.  25 


Mar.  27, 

1956 

Mar.  16, 

1957 


Feb.  4 
Feb.  16 
Mar.  5 


Mar.  5 


Mar.  6 


Jan.  16 


Dec.  21 


Jan.  19  |  Feb.  7 


Feb.  12 


Jan.  24  j  Feb.  12 


Feb.  23 
Mar.  7 


N.B.  The  holidays  of  Madras  include  those  of  the  newly  formed  Andhra  State. 


LIST  OF  HOLIDAYS 


125 


CONSOLIDATED  LIST  OF  HOLIDAYS 

MOSLEM  FESTIVALS 


Criterion 

Dates  of  Festivals 

Festivals 

States  having  holidays  '| 

1954-55  , 
^aka  1876 

1955-56 
£aka  1877 

1956-57 
£aka  1878 

1957-58 
Saka  1879 

1958-59 

$aka  1880 

1. 

Sab-e-Meraj 

27  Bajab 

Apr.  2 

Mar.  22, 

1955 
Mar.  11, 

1956 

Feb.  28, 
1957 

Feb.  17, 
1958 

Feb.  6, 
1959 

2. 

Sab-e-Barat 

Bombay,  Madhya  Pradesh, 
Hyderabad,  Jammu  & 
Kashmir,  Saurashtra 
and  Bhopal; 

15  Shaban 

Apr.  19 

April  9 

Mar.  28, 

1956 
Mar.  18, 

1957 

Mar.  7, 
1958 

Feb.  24, 
1959 

3. 

1st.  day  of  Bamadan 

1  Bamadan 

May  5 

Apr.  24 

Apr.  13 

‘Apr.  2 

Mar.  22, 

1958 

Mar.  11, 

1959 

4. 

Sub-e-Qdar 

Jammu  &  Kashmir 

27  Bamadan 

May  31 

May  20 

May  9 

Apr.  28 

Apr.  17 

5. 

Jamat-ul-Vida 

Uttar  Pradesh,  Jammu 
-  &  Kashmir  and  Bhopal 

Last  Friday  of 
Bamadan 

May  28 

May  20 

May  11 

Apr.  26 

Apr.  18. 

6. 

Id-ul-Fitr 

Govt,  of  India  and  all 

States 

1  Shawal 

June  3 

May  24 

May  12 

May  2 

Apr.  21 

7. 

Id-uz-Zuha  (Bakrid) 

Govt,  of  India  and  all 

States 

10  Zilhijja 

Aug.  10 

July  30 

July  19 

July  9 

June  28 

8. 

Muharram 

Govt,  of  India  and  all 

States 

10  Muharram 

Sep.  9 

Aug.  29 

Aug.  18 

Aug.  V 

July  28 

9. 

Chelhum 

Bihar  and  Uttar  Pradesh 

19  Safar 

Oct.  18 

Oct.  7 

Sep.  25 

Sep.  15 

Sep.  4 

10. 

AkheriChahar  Sumba 

-  • 

Last  Wednes¬ 
day  of  Safar 

Oct.  27 

Oct.  12 

Oct.  3 

Sep.  25 

Sep.  10 

11. 

Fateha  Dwaz 

Daham  (Id-e-Milad 
or  Bara  Wafat) 

Govt,  of  India  and  all  States 
except  Orissa,  West 
Bengal  and  Tripura 

12  Babi-al-awal 

Nov.  9 

Oct.  29 

Oct.  17 

Oct.  7 

Sep.  26 

12. 

Fateha  Yazdaham 
(Giarhween  Sharif) 

Bhopal 

11  Babi-us-sani 

Dec.  8 

Nov.  27 

Nov.  15 

Nov.  4 

Oct.  25 

N.  B.  The  holidays  of  Madras  include  those  of  the  newly  formed  Andhra  State. 


1256 


REPORT  OP  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


CONSOLIDATED  LIST  OF  HOLIDAYS 

CHRISTIAN  FESTIVALS 


Festivals 

States  having  holidays 

1 

Dates  of  Festivals 

Criterion 

1954-55 
3aka  1876 

1955-56 
£aka  1877 

1956-57 
3aka  1878 

1957-58  j 
3aka  1879  | 

1958-59 
f^aka  1880 

1.  Palm  Sunday 

— 

7  days  before 
Easter  Sunday 

Apr.  11 

Apr.  3 

Mar.  25 

Apr.  14 

Mar.  30 

2.  Good  Friday 

Govt,  of  India  and  all 
States  except  Madhya 
Bharat,  PEPSU  and 
Rajasthan 

2  days  before 
Easter  Sunday 

Apr.  16 

Apr.  8 

Mar.  30 

Apr.  19 

Apr.  4 

3.  Easter  (Holy) 
Saturday 

West  Bengal,  Travancore- 
Cochin  and  Tripura 

Day  before 

Easter  Sunday 

Apr.  17 

Apr.  9 

Mar.  31 

Apr.  20 

Apr.  5 

4.  Easter  Sunday 

The  Sunday 

occurring  on 
or  immediate 
after  the  Full- 
moon  following 
Mar.  21 

Apr.  18 

Apr.  10 

Apr.  1 

Apr.  21 

Apr.  6 

5.  Low  Sunday 

'i 

7  days  after 
Easter  Sunday 

Apr.  25 

Apr.  17 

1  Apr.  8 

Apr.  28 

Apr.  13 

‘6.  ^Rogation  Sunday 

.  — 

35  days  after 
Easter  Sunday 

May  23 

May  15 

May  6 

May  26 

May  11 

7.  Ascension  Day — Holy 
Thursday 

Travancore-Cochin 

39  days  after 
Easter  Sunday 

May  27 

May.  19 

May  10 

May  30 

May  15 

8.  Ascension  Sunday 

— 

3  days  after 
Ascension  Day 

May  30 

May  22 

May  13 

June  2 

May  18 

9.  Whit  Sunday — 
Pentecost 

Travancore  -Cochin 

49  days  after 
Easter  Sunday 

June  6 

May  29 

May  20 

1  June  9 

May  25 

10;  Trinity  Sunday 

— 

56  days  after 
Easter  Sunday 

June  13 

June  5 

May  27 

June  16 

June  1 

11.  Corpus  Christi 
(Thursday) 

— 

60  days  after 
Easter  Sunday 

June  17 

June  9 

May  31 

June  20 

June  5 

12.  First  Sunday  in 
Advent 

Fourth  Sunday 
before  Christ¬ 
mas  or  the 
nearest  Sunday 
6o  Nov.  30 

Nov.  28 

Nov.  27 

Dec.  2 

Dec.  1 

Nov.  30 

13.  Christmas  Eve 

Assam,  Bihar  and  Travan¬ 
core-Cochin 

Day  before 

Christmas 

Dec.  24 
(Fri) 

Dec.  24 
(Sat) 

Dec.  24 
(Mon) 

Dec.  24 
(Tue) 

Dec.  24 
(Wed) 

14.  Christmas  Day 

15.  New  Year  Eve 

Govt,  of  India  and  all 
States 

Fixed 

Fixed 

Dec.  25 
(Sat) 

Dec.  31 
(Fri) 

Dec.  25 
(Sun) 
Dec.  31 
(Sat) 

Dec.  25 
(Tue) 

Dec.  31 
(Mon) 

Dec.  25 
(Wed) 

Dec.  31 
(Tues) 

Dec.  25 
(Thur) 

Dec.  31 
(Wed) 

16.  Christian  (English) 
New  Year’s  Day 

Govt,  of  India  and  all 
States 

Fixed 

Jan.  1 
(Sat) 

Jan.  1 
(Sun) 

Jan.  1 
(Tues) 

Jan.  1 
(Wed) 

Jan.  1 
(Thur) 

17.  Epiphany 

— 

Fixed 

Jan.  6 
(Thur) 

Jan.  6 
(Fri) 

Jan.  6 
(Sun) 

Jan.  6 
(Mon) 

Jan.  6 
(Tuei 

18.  Septuagesima  Sunday 

— 

63  days  before 
Easter  Sunday 

Feb.  6 

Jan.  29 

Feb.  17 

Feb.  2 

Jan.  25 

19.  Quinquagesima 

iShrove)  Sunday 

— 

49  days  before 
Easter  Sunday 

Feb.  20 

Feb.  12 

Mar.  3 

Feb.  16 

Feb.  8 

20.  Ash  Wednesday 

46  days  before 
Easter  Sunday 

Feb.  23 

Feb.  15 

Mar.  6 

Feb.  19 

Feb.  11, 

N.B  The  holidays  of  Madras  include  those  of  the  newly  formed  Andhra  State. 


LIST  OF  HOLIDAYS 


127 


GOVERNMENT  OF  INDIA  HOLIDAYS 


Festivals  Dates  of  Festivals 


1954-55 

1955-56 

1956-57 

1957-58 

1958-59 

£aka  1876 

£aka  1877 

k5aka  1878 

^aka  1879 

Saka  1880 

Indian  New  Year’s  Day* 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  21 

Mar.  22 

Mar. 

22 

Vaisakhi 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  13 

Apr. 

13 

Independence  Day 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug. 

15 

Mahatma  Gandhi’s  Birthday 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct. 

2 

English  New  Year’s  Day 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan. 

1 

Bepnblic  Day 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan. 

26 

Mahaviguva  Day* 

Mar.  21, 

Mar.  20, 

Mar.  21, 

Mar.  21, 

Mar. 

21, 

1955 

1956 

1957 

1958 

1959 

Bamanavami 

Apr.  11 

Apr.  1 

Apr.  19 

Apr.  8 

Mar.  29 

Buddha  PQrpima 

May  17 

May  6 

May  24 

May  13 

May  3 

Janmastami 

Aug.  21 

Aug.  11 

Aug.  29 

Aug.  19 

Sep.  6 

Dnssera 

Oct.  4-7 

Oct.  23-26 

Oct.  11-14 

Sep.  30-Oct.3 

Oct.  19-21 

Diw&li 

Oct.  26-27 

Nov.  14-15 

Nov.  2-3 

Oct.  22-23 

Nov.  10-11 

Guru  Nanak’s  Birthday 

Nov.  10 

Nov.  29 

Nov.  18 

Nov.  7 

Nov.  26 

Mahaiivaratri 

Feb.  20 

Mar.  10, 

1956 

Feb.  27 

Feb.  16 

Mar.  7, 
1959 

Holi 

Mar.  8-9, 

1955 

Mar.  26-27, 

1956 

Mar.  15-16, 

1957 

Mar.  5-6, 

1958 

Good  Friday 

Apr.  16 

Apr.  8 

Mar.  30 

Apr.  19 

Apr.  4 

Christmas  Day 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Deo.  25 

Id-ul-Fitr 

June  3 

May  24 

May  12 

May 

2 

Apr. 

21 

Id-uz-Zuha 

Aug.  10 

July  30 

July  19 

July 

9 

June 

28 

Muharram 

Sep.  9 

Aug.  29 

Aug.  18 

Aug. 

7 

July 

28 

Id-e-Milad 

Nov.  9 

Oct.  29 

Oct.  17 

Oct. 

7 

Sep. 

26 

* 


Proposed  all-India  holiday. 


REPOET  OF  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


Xd8 


List  of  Holidays  for  different  States— con  fd. 
(1)  ASSAM  HOLIDAYS 


Festivals 

1954-55 


Saka 1876 

Indian  New  Year’s  Day* 

Mar. 

22 

Bahag  Bihu 

Apr. 

13 

Independence  Day 

Aug. 

15 

Mahatma  Gandhi’s  Birthday 

Oct. 

2 

English  New  Year’s  Day 

Jan. 

1 

Magh  Bihu 

Jan. 

14 

Republic  Day 

Jan. 

20 

Mahavifuva  Day* 

Mar.  21,- 
1955 

Tithi  of  Deva  Damodara 

May 

3 

Buddha  Purnima 

May 

17 

Tithi  of  Madhava  Deva 

Aug. 

18 

Janmagtami 

Aug. 

21 

Tithi  of  l^ri  Sankara  Deva 

Aug. 

30 

Durga  Puja 

Oct. 

4-7 

Laksmi  Puja 

Oct. 

11 

Kali  Puja 

Oct. 

25 

f^rl  Pancami 

Jan. 

28 

Mahasivaratri 

Feb. 

20 

Dolayatra 

Mar. 

8, 

1955 


Dates  of  Fe  stivals 


1955-56 

1956-57 

1957 

-58 

1958-59 

kSaka 

1877 

f?aka 

1878 

Saka 

1879 

Saka  1880 

Mar. 

22 

Mar. 

21 

Mar. 

22 

Mar. 

22 

Apr. 

14 

Apr. 

13 

Apr. 

13 

Apr. 

13 

Aug. 

15 

Aug. 

15 

Aug. 

15 

Aug. 

15 

Oct. 

2 

Oct. 

2 

Oct. 

2 

Oct. 

2 

Jan. 

1 

Jan. 

1 

Jan. 

1 

Jan. 

1 

Jan. 

14 

Jan. 

13 

Jan. 

14 

Jan. 

14 

Jan. 

26 

Jan. 

26 

Jan. 

26 

Jan. 

26 

Mar. 

20, 

Mar. 

21, 

Mar. 

21, 

Mar. 

21. 

1956 

.1957 

1958 

1959 

Apr. 

23 

May 

11 

Apr. 

30 

Apr. 

19 

May 

6 

May 

24 

May 

13 

May 

3 

Sep. 

6 

Aug. 

26 

Sep. 

14 

Sep. 

3 

Sep. 

9 

Aug. 

29 

Aug. 

19 

Sep. 

6 

Aug. 

19 

Sep. 

6 

Aug. 

27 

Sept 

15 

Oct. 

23-26 

Oct. 

11-14 

Sep.  30-Oct.  3 

Oct. 

19-! 

Oct. 

30 

Oct. 

19 

Oct. 

8 

Oct. 

27 

Nov. 

13 

Nov. 

1 

Oct. 

22 

Nov. 

10 

Feb. 

16 

Feb. 

5 

Jan. 

25 

Feb. 

12 

Mar. 

10, 

Feb. 

27 

Feb. 

16 

Mar. 

7. 

1956 

1959 

Mar. 

26, 

Mar. 

5, 

— 

1956  1958 
Mar.  16, 

1957 


Good  Friday 

Apr. 

16 

Christmas  Eve 

Dec. 

24 

Christmas  Day 

Pec.. 

25 

Id-ul  Fitr 

June 

3 

Id-uz-Zuha 

Aug. 

10 

Muharram  ■ 

Sep. 

9 

lUthha  Dwazdaham 

Nov. 

9 

Apr. 

8 

Mar. 

30 

Apr. 

19 

Apr. 

Dec. 

24 

Dec. 

24 

Dec. 

24 

Dec. 

Dec. 

25 

Dec. 

25 

Dec. 

25 

Dec. 

May 

24 

May 

12 

May 

2 

Apr. 

July 

30 

July 

19 

July 

9 

June 

Aug. 

29 

Aug. 

18 

Aug. 

7 

July 

Oct. 

29 

Oct. 

17 

Oct. 

7 

Sep. 

* 


Proposed  all-India  holiday. 


LIST  OF  HOLIDAYS 


129 


List  of  Holidays  for  different  States— contd. 
(2)  BIHAR  HOLIDAYS 


Festivals 

1954-55 
Saka  1876 

Dates 

1955-56 
Saka  1877 

of  F  e  s  t  i 

1956-57 
Saka  1878 

v  a  1  s 

1957-58 
$aka  1879 

1958-59 
$aka  1880 

Indian  New  Year’s  Day* 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  21 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  22 

Independence  Day 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 
Oct.  2 

Mahatma  Gandhi’s  Lirthday 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

English  New  Year’s  Day 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  T 

Republic  Day 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Mahavisuva  Day* 

Mar.  21, 
1955 

Mar.  20, 
1956 

Mar.  21, 
1957 

Mar.  21 

1958 

Mar.  21, 
1959  " 

Sarhul 

Apr.  6 

Mar.  26, 
1955 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  3 

Mar.  23, 
1958 

Ramanavami 

Apr.  11 

Apr.  1 

Apr.  19 

Apr.  8 

Mar.  29 

Mahavir’s  Birthday 

Apr.  15 

Apr.  5 

Apr.  23 

Apr.  12 

Apr.  2 

Buddha's  Birthday 

May  17 

May  6 

May  24 

May  13 

May.  3 

Janmaijtarni 

Aug.  21 

Aug.  11 

Aug.  29 

Aug.  19 

Sept.  6 

Durga  Puja 

Oct.  4-7 

Oct.  23-26 

Oct.  11-14 

Sept.30-Oct,3 

Oct.  19-22 

Lak$m!  Puja 

Oct.  11 

Oct.  30 

Oct.  19 

Oct.  8 

Oct.  27 

Diwali 

Oct.  26 

Nov.  14 

Nov.  2 

Oct.  22 

Nov.  10 

Dwat  Puja 

Oct.  28 

Nov.  16 

Nov.  4 

Oct.  24 

Now.  12 

Chhat 

Nov.  1 

Nov.  20 

Nov.  8 

Oct.  28 

Nov.  16 

Gnru  Govinda  Singh's  Birthday 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  20 

Jan.  8 

Dec.  28 

Jan.  16 

Yasanta  Pancami 

Jan.  28 

Feb.  16 

Feb.  5 

Jab.  '24 

Feb.  12 

Phalguna  Sivaratri 

Feb.  20 

Mar.  10, 

1956 

Feb.  27 

Feb.  16 

Mar.  7, 
1959 

Holi,  1st  day 

Mar.  8, 
1955 

Mar.  26, 

1956 

Mar.  15, 

1957 

Mar.  5, 

1958 

Hob,  2nd  day 

Mar.  9, 
1956 

Mar.  27, 

1956 

Mar.  16, 

1957 

Mkr.  6, 

1958 

Good  Friday 

Apr.  16 

Apr.  8 

Mar.  30 

Apr.  19 

Apr.  4 

Christmas  Eve 

Dec.  24 

Dec.  24 

Dec.  24 

Dec.  24 

Dec.  24 

Christmas  Day 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Dee.  25 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  26 

Id-ul-Fitr 

June 

3 

May 

24 

May 

12 

May 

2 

Apr. 

21 

Id-nz-Zuha 

Aug. 

10 

July 

30 

July 

19 

July 

9 

June 

28 

Muharram 

Sep. 

9 

Aug. 

29 

Aug. 

18 

Aug. 

7 

July 

28 

Chelhum 

Oct. 

18 

Oct. 

7 

Sep. 

25 

Sep. 

15 

Sep. 

4 

Fateha  Dwazdaham 

Nov. 

9 

Oct. 

29 

Oct. 

17 

Oct. 

7 

Sep. 

26 

* 


Proposed  all-India  holiday. 


130 


REPORT  OF  THE-  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


Li»t  of- Holidays  for  different  States — contd. 
(3)  BOMBAY  HOLIDAYS 


Festivals 

D  a  t 

e  s  of  F  e 

s  t  i  v  a 

1  s 

1954-55 

1955-56 

1956-57 

1957-58 

1958-59 

Saka  1876 

Saka 

1877 

Saka  1878 

Saka  1879 

Saka  1880 

Indian  New  Year’s  Day* 

Mar. 

22 

Mar. 

22 

Mar.  21 

Mar. 

22 

Mar.  22 

Independence  Day 

Aug. 

15 

Aug. 

15 

Aug.  15 

Aug. 

15 

Aug.  15 

Mahatma  Gandhi’s  Birthday 

Oct. 

2 

Oct. 

2 

Oct.  2 

Oct. 

2 

Oct.  2 

English  New  Year’s  Day 

Jan. 

1 

Jan. 

1 

Jan.  1 

Jan. 

1 

Jan.  1 

Republic  Day 

Jan. 

26 

Jan. 

26 

Jan.  26 

Jan. 

26 

Jan.  26 

Mahaviguva  Day* 

Mar. 

21, 

Mar. 

20, 

Mar.  21, 

Mar. 

21, 

Mar.  21, 

(Jamshedi  Nauroj ) 

1955 

1956 

1957 

1958 

1959 

Gudi  Padwa 

Apr. 

4 

Mar. 

24 

Apr. 

12 

Apr. 

1, 

— 

(Sthapana  Navaratra) 

1955 

1957 

Mar. 

21, 

1958 

Ramanavami 

Apr. 

11 

Apr. 

1 

Apr. 

19 

Apr. 

8 

Mar. 

29, 

Mahavir’s  Birthday 

Apr. 

15 

Apr. 

5 

Apr. 

23 

Apr. 

12 

Apr. 

2 

Jain  Festival  (Oli  ends) 

Apr. 

18 

Apr. 

7 

Apr. 

25 

Apr. 

14 

Apr. 

4 

Cocpanut  Day. 

Aug. 

14 

Aug. 

3 

Aug. 

21 

Aug. 

10 

Aug. 

29 

Gokulastaml 

Aug. 

21 

Aug. 

11 

Aug. 

29 

Aug. 

19 

Sep. 

6 

Jain  Festival  (Sravapa  K  13) 

Aug. 

26 

Aug. 

15 

Sep. 

3 

Aug. 

23 

Sep. 

11 

Jain  Festival  (fSravana  K  30) 

Aug. 

28 

Aug. 

17 

Sep. 

4 

Aug. 

25 

Sep. 

13 

Gaijesa  Gaturthi 

Sep. 

1 

Sep. 

19 

Sep. 

8 

Aug. 

28 

Sep. 

16 

Samvatsari  and  Paryugana  Parva  (Jain) 

Sep. 

2 

Sep. 

21 

Sep. 

9 

Aug. 

29 

Sep. 

17 

Dussera 

Oct. 

7 

Oct. 

26 

Oct. 

14 

Oct. 

3 

Oct. 

21 

Naraka  Caturdasi  and  Kali  Caudas 

Oct. 

25 

Nov. 

13 

Nov. 

1 

Oct. 

22 

Nov. 

10 

Diwali 

Oct. 

26-27 

Nov. 

14-15 

Nov. 

2-3 

Oct. 

22-23 

Nov. 

10-11 

Guru  Nanak’s  Birthday 

Nov. 

10 

Nov. 

29 

Nov. 

18 

Nov. 

7 

Nov. 

26 

Jain  Festival  (Kartika  S  15) 

*> 

If 

M 

U 

Mahaaivaratr 

Feb. 

20 

Mar. 

10, 

Feb. 

27 

Feb. 

16 

Mar. 

7, 

1956 

1959 

Holi 

Mar. 

9, 

— 

Mar. 

27, 

Mar. 

6, 

1955 

1956 

1958 

Mar. 

16 

1957 

Good  Friday 

Apr. 

16 

Apr. 

8 

Mar. 

30 

Apr. 

19 

Apr. 

4 

Christmas  Day 

Dee. 

25 

Dec. 

25 

Dec. 

25 

Dec. 

25 

Dec. 

25 

Sab-e-Barat 

Apr. 

19 

Apr. 

9 

Mar. 

28, 

Mar. 

7, 

Feb. 

24. 

1956 

1958 

1959 

Mar. 

18, 

1957 

Id-ul-Fitr 

June 

3 

May 

24. 

May 

12 

May 

2 

Apr. 

21 

Id-uz-Zuha 

Aug. 

10 

July 

30 

July 

19 

July 

9 

June 

28 

Muharram 

Sep. 

9 

Aug. 

29 

Aug. 

18 

Aug. 

7 

July 

28 

Id-e-Milad 

Nov. 

9 

Oct. 

29 

Oct. 

17 

Oct. 

7 

Sep. 

26 

*  Proposed  all-India  holiday. 


LIST  QF  HOLIDAYS 


131 


List  of  Holidays  for  different  States — contd. 
(4)  MADHYA  PRADESH  HOLIDAYS 


Festivals 

Date 

s  of 

Fe 

s  t  i  v  a  1 

s 

1954-55 ' 

1955 

-56 

1956 

[-57 

1957- 

•58 

1958- 

-59 

^aka  1876 

£aka  1877 

l^aka 

1878 

£aka  1879 

Saka  1880 

Indian  New  Year’s  Day* 

Mar. 

22 

Mar. 

22 

Mar. 

21 

Mar. 

22 

Mar. 

22 

Tilak  Commemoration  Day 

Aug. 

1 

Aug. 

1 

Aug. 

1 

Aug. 

1 

Aug. 

1 

Independence  Day 

Aug. 

15 

Aug. 

15 

Aug. 

15 

Aug. 

16 

Aug. 

15 

Mahatma  Gandhi’s  Birthday 

Oct. 

2 

Oct. 

2 

Oct. 

2 

Oct. 

2 

Oct. 

2 

English  New  Year’s  Day 

Jan. 

1 

Jan. 

1 

Jan. 

1 

Jan. 

1 

Jan. 

1 

Republic  Day 

Jan. 

26 

Jan. 

26 

Jan. 

26 

Jan. 

26 

Jan. 

26 

Mahaviijuva  Day* 

Mar.  21, 
1955 

Mar.  20, 
1956 

Mar.  21, 
1957 

Mar.  21, 
1958 

Mar.  21, 
1969 

Ramanavami 

Apr. 

11 

Apr. 

1 

Apr. 

19 

Apr. 

8 

Mar. 

29 

Mahavir’s  Birthday 

Apr. 

15 

Apr. 

5 

Apr. 

23 

Apr. 

12 

Apr. 

2 

Nagapancami 

Aug. 

3 

July 

24 

Aug. 

10 

July 

31 

Aug. 

19 

Raksa  Bandhana 

Aug. 

14 

Aug. 

3 

Aug. 

21 

Aug. 

10 

Aug. 

29 

.Tanmastami 

Aug. 

21 

Aug. 

11 

Aug. 

29 

Aug. 

19 

Sep. 

6 

Ganesa  Caturthi 

Sep. 

1 

Sep. 

19 

Sep. 

8 

Aug. 

28 

Sep. 

16 

Pitfmokqa  Amavasya 

Sep. 

26 

Oct. 

15 

Oct. 

3 

Sep. 

23 

Oct. 

12 

Dussera 

Oct. 

7 

Oot. 

26 

Oct. 

14 

Oct. 

3 

Oct. 

21 

Diwali 

Oct. 

25-26 

Nov. 

13-14 

Nov. 

1-2 

Oct.  21-22 

Nov. 

io 

Mahasivaratri 

Feb. 

20 

Mar. 

10, 

Feb. 

27 

Feb. 

16 

Mar. 

7, 

1956 

1959 

Holi 

Mar. 

9. 

_ 

_ 

Mar. 

27, 

Mar. 

6 

_ 

1955 

1956 

1958 

Mar. 

16, 

1957 

Good  Friday 

Apr. 

16 

Apr. 

8 

Mar. 

30 

Apr. 

19 

Apr. 

4 

Christmas  Day 

Dec. 

23 

Dec. 

25 

Dec. 

25 

Dec. 

25 

Deo. 

25’ 

Sab-e-Barat 

Apr. 

19 

Apr. 

9 

Mar. 

28, 

Mar. 

7, 

Feb. 

24, 

1956 

1958 

1959 

Mar. 

18, 

1957 

Id-ul-Fitr 

June 

3 

May 

24 

May 

12 

May 

2 

Apr. 

5SI 

Id-uz-Zuha 

Aug. 

10 

July 

30 

July 

19 

July 

9 

June 

28 

Muharram 

Sep. 

9 

Aug. 

29 

Aug. 

18 

Aug. 

7 

July 

28 

Id-e-Milad 

Nov. 

9 

Oct. 

29 

Oot. 

17 

Oct. 

7 

Sep. 

26 

*  Proposed  all-India  holiday. 


0.  B.-25 


132 


REPORT  OF  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


List  of  Holidays  for  different  States — contd. 
(5)  MADRAS  HOLIDAYS 


Festivals 

D  a  t 

e  s  of 

Fes 

t  i  v  a  1  s 

1954 

-55 

1955-56 

1956-57 

1957. 

-58 

1958- 

59 

Saka 

1876 

Saka 

1877 

Saka 

1878 

£aka  1879 

Saka  1880 

Indian  New  Year’s  Day* 

Mar. 

22 

Mar. 

22 

Mar. 

21 

Mar. 

22 

Mar. 

22 

Independence  Day 

Aug. 

15 

Aug. 

15 

Aug. 

15 

Aug. 

15 

Aug. 

15 

Mahatma  Gandhi’s  Birthday 

Oct. 

2 

Oct. 

2 

Oct. 

2 

Oct. 

2 

Oct. 

2 

English  New  Year's  Day 

Jan. 

1 

Jan. 

1 

Jan. 

1 

Jan. 

1 

Jan. 

1 

Bhogi 

Jan. 

13 

Jan. 

13 

Jan. 

12 

Jan. 

13 

Jan. 

13 

Pongal 

Jan. 

14 

Jan. 

14 

Jan. 

13 

Jan. 

14 

Jan. 

14 

Mattu  Pongal 

Jan. 

15 

Jan. 

15 

Jan. 

14 

Jan. 

15 

Jan. 

15 

Republic  Day 

Jan. 

26 

Jan. 

26 

Jan. 

26 

Jan. 

26 

Jan. 

26 

Mahaviguva  Day* 

Mar. 

21, 

Mar. 

20, 

Mar. 

21, 

Mar. 

21, 

Mar. 

21, 

1955 

1956 

1957 

1958 

1959 

Avani  Avittam 

Aug. 

14 

Sep. 

1 

Aug. 

21 

Sep. 

7 

Aug. 

28 

$ri  Jayanti 

Aug. 

21 

Sep. 

9 

Aug. 

29 

Aug. 

19 

Sep. 

6 

Vinayaka  C^turthi 

Sep. 

1 

Sep. 

19 

Sep. 

8 

Aug. 

28 

Sep. 

16 

Sri  Narayapa  Gurudev’s 

Birthday 

Sep. 

12 

Sep. 

2 

Aug. 

22 

Sep. 

8 

Aug. 

29 

Mahalaya  Amavasya 

Sep. 

26 

Oct. 

15 

Oct. 

3 

Sep. 

23 

Oct. 

12 

Ayudha  Puja 

Oct. 

4-7 

Oct. 

23-26 

Oct. 

11-14 

Sep.  30-Oct.  3 

Oct. 

19-21 

Diwali 

Oct. 

25-26 

Nov. 

13-14 

Nov. 

1-2 

Oct. 

21-22 

Nov. 

10 

Vaikuptha  Ekadasi 

Jan. 

5 

Dec. 

25 

Jan. 

12 

Jan. 

1 

Dec. 

21 

Mahasivaratri 

Feb. 

20 

Mar.  10, 
1956 

Feb. 

27 

Feb. 

16 

Mar.  7, 
1959 

Good  Friday 

Apr. 

16 

Apr. 

8 

Mar. 

30 

Apr. 

19 

Apr. 

4 

Christmas  Day 

Dec. 

25 

Dec. 

25 

Dec. 

25 

Dec. 

25 

Dec. 

25 

Id-ul-Fitr 

June 

3 

May 

24 

May 

12 

May 

2 

Apr. 

21 

Id-uz-Zuha  (Bakrid) 

Aug. 

10 

July 

30 

July 

19 

July 

9 

June 

28 

Muharram 

Sep. 

9 

Aug. 

29 

Aug. 

18 

Aug. 

7 

July 

28 

Id-e-Milad 

Nov. 

9 

Oct. 

29 

Oct. 

17 

Oct. 

7 

Sep. 

26 

*  Proposed  all-India  holiday. 

N.B.  The  holidays  of  Madras  include  those  of  the  newly  formed  Andhra  State. 


LIST  OF  HOLIDAYS 


133 


joist  of  Holidays  for  different  States— con/d. 

(6)  ORISSA  HOLIDAYS 

Festivals  Dates  of  Festivals 


1954-55 

1955-56  , 

1956-57 

1957-58 

1958-59 

Saka 

1876 

£aka  1877 

Saka  1878 

$aka  1879 

£aka  1880 

Indian  New  Year’s  Day* 

Mar. 

22 

Mar.  22 

Mar. 

21 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  22 

Independence  Day 

Aug. 

15 

Aug.  15 

Aug. 

15 

Ang.  15 

Aug.  15 

Mahatma  Gandhi’s  Birthday 

Oct. 

2 

Oct.  2 

Oct. 

2 

Oct.  2 

Oct. 

2 

English  New  Year’s  Day 

Jan. 

1' 

Jan.  1 

Jan. 

1 

Jan.  1 

Jan. 

1 

Republic  Day 

Jan. 

26 

Jan.  26 

Jan. 

26 

Jan.  26 

Jan. 

26 

Mahaviguva  Day* 

Mar.  21, 
1955 

Mar.  20, 
1956 

Mar. 

1957 

21, 

Mar.  21, 
1958 

Mar.  21, 
1959 

Rathayatra 

July 

2 

June  21 

July  9 

June  29 

June 

19 

Punaryatra 

July 

10 

June  29 

July  17 

July  7 

June 

27 

Janmagtami 

Aug. 

21 

Aug.  10 

Aug.  29 

Aug.  18 

Sep. 

6 

Ganesa  Caturthi 

Sep. 

1 

Sep.  20 

Sep.  8 

Aug.  28 

Sep. 

16 

Mahalaya  Amavasya 

Sep. 

26 

Oct.  15 

Oct.  3 

Sep.  23 

Oct. 

12- 

Durga  Puja 

Oct. 

4-7 

Oct.  23-26 

Oct.  11-14 

Sep.  30-Oct.3 

Oct. 

19-22 

Lakgmi  Puja  & 

Kumara  Utsava 

Oct. 

11 

Oct.  30 

Oct.  19 

Oct.  8 

Oct. 

27 

Dipavali 

Oct. 

26 

Nov.  14 

Nov.  2 

Oct.  22 

Nov. 

10 

Rasa  Purnima 

Nov. 

10 

Nov.  29 

Nov.  18 

Nov.  7 

Nov. 

26 

Vasanta  Pancami 

Jan. 

28 

Feb.  16 

Feb.  5 

Jan.  24 

Feb. 

12 

Mahasivaratri 

Feb. 

20 

Mar.  10, 
1956 

Feb.  27 

Feb.  16 

Mar.  7, 
1959 

Dolayatra 

Mar.  8, 
1955 

Mar.  26, 
1956 

Mar.  16, 
1957 

Mar.  5, 

1958 

Holi 

Mar. 

1955 

9, 

Mar.  27, 
1956 

Mar.  16, 
1957 

Mar.  6, 
1958 

Good  Friday 
Christmas  Day 


Apr. 

16 

Apr.  8 

Mar. 

30 

Apr. 

19 

Apr.  4 

Dec. 

25 

Dec.  25 

Dec. 

25 

Dec. 

25 

Dec.  25 

June 

3 

May 

24 

May 

12 

May 

2 

Apr. 

21 

Aug. 

10 

July 

30 

July 

19 

July 

9 

June 

28 

Sep. 

9 

Aug. 

29 

Aug. 

18 

Aug. 

7 

July 

28 

Id-ul-Fitr 

Id-uz-Zuha 

Muharram 


*  Proposed  all-India  holiday. 


134 


BEPORT  OP  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


List  of  Holidays  for  different  States — contd. 


(7)  EAST  PUNJAB  HOLIDAYS 


Festivals 

Dates 

of  F  e  s  t  i 

v  a  1  s 

1954-55 

1955-56 

1956-57 

1957-58 

1958-59 

£aka  1876 

^aka  1877 

^aka  1878 

^aka  1879 

Saka  1880 

Indian  New  Year’s  Day* 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  21 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  22 

Vaisakhi 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  13 

Independence  Day 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Mahatma  Gandhi’s  Birthday 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Death  Anniversary  of  La  la  La  j  pat  Rai 

Nov.  17 

Nov.  17 

Nov.  17 

Nov.  17 

Nov.  17 

English  New  Year’s  Day 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Republic  Day 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Mahaviguva  Day* 

Mar.  21, 
1955 

Mar.  20, 

1956 

Mar.  21, 
1957 

Mar.  21, 
1958 

Mar.  21, 
1959 

Ramanavami 

Apr.  11 

Apr.  1 

Apr.  19 

Apr.  8 

Mar.  29 

Mahavir’s  Birthday 

Apr.  15 

Apr.  5 

Apr.  23 

Apr.  12 

Apr.  2 

Guru  Arjun  Dev’s  Martyrdom  Day 

June  4 

May  25 

June  12 

June  2 

May  22 

Janmagtami 

Aug.  21 

Aug.  11 

Aug.  29 

Aug.  19 

Sep.  6 

Dussera 

Oct.  4-7 

Oct.  23-26 

Oct.  11-14 

Sep.  30-Oct.  3  Oct.  19-21 

Mahargi  Valmiki’s  Birthday 

Oct.  12 

Oct.  31 

Oct.  19 

Oct.  8 

Oct.  27 

Diwali 

Oct.  25-26 

Nov.  13-14 

Nov.  1-2 

Oct.  21-22 

Nov.  10 

Guru  Nanak’s  Birthday 

Nov.  10 

Nov.  29 

Nov.  18 

Nov.  7 

Nov.  26 

Sahid-day  of  ^rl  Guru  Teg  Bahadur 

Nov.  30 

Dec.  19 

Dec.  7 

Nov.  26 

Dec.  15 

Guru  Govinda  Singh’s  Birthday 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  20 

Jan.  8 

Dec.  28 

Jan.  16 

Yasanta  PancamI 

Jan.  28 

Feb.  16 

Feb.  5 

Jan.  24 

Feb.  12 

Guru  Ravi  Das’s  Birthday 

Feb.  6 

Feb.  25 

Feb.  14 

Feb.  4 

Feb.  23 

Mahasivaratri 

Feb.  20 

Mar.  10, 

1956 

Feb.  27 

Feb.  16 

Mar.  7, 
1959. 

Holi 

Mar.  8, 

1955 

Mar.  26, 

1956 

Mar.  15, 

1957 

Mar.  5, 

1958 

Hola 

Mar.  9, 

1955 

— 

Mar.  27, 

1956 

Mar.  6, 

1958 

Mar.  16, 
1967 


Good  Friday 

Apr.  -16 

Apr.  8 

Mar.  30 

Apr.  19 

Apr. 

4 

Christmas  Day 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Dec. 

25 

Id-ul-Fitr 

June 

3 

May  24 

May  12 

May  2 

Apr.  21 

Id-uz-Zuha 

Aug. 

10 

July  30 

July  19 

July  9 

June  28 

Muharram 

Sep. 

9 

Aug.  29 

Aug.  18 

Aug.  7 

July  28 

Id-e-Milad 

Nov. 

9 

Oct.  29 

Oct.  17 

Oct.  7 

Sep.  26 

* 


Proposed  all-India  holiday. 


LIST  OF. HOLIDAYS 


135- 


List 


Festivals 


Indian  New  Year’s  Day* 
Independence  Day 
Mahatma  Gandhi’s  Birthday 
English  New  Year’s  Day 
Republic  Day 
Mah5vi$uva  Day* 

ftamanavami 

Mahavir’s  Birthday 

Buddha  Jayanti 

Bakga  Bandhana 

Janmafjtami 

Dussera 

Diwali 

Guru  Nanak’s  Birthday  & 
Kartiki  Purnima 
Guru  Govinda  Singh’s  Birthday 
Mauni  Amavasya 
Vasanta  Pancami 
Mahasivaratri 

Holi,  1st  day 


Holi,  2nd  day 


Good  Friday 
Christmas  Day 

Jamat-ul-Vida 

(Laflt  Friday  of  Ramadan) 

Id-ul-Fitr 

Id-uz-Zuha 

Muharram 

Chelhum 

Bara  Wafat 


of  Holidays  for  different  States— contd. 
(8)  UTTAR  PRADESH  HOLIDAYS 


D  a  t 

e  s  of  F  e 

s  t  i  v  a  I  s 

^  1954-55 

1955-56 

1956-57 

1957-58 

1958-59 

Saka  1876 

Saka  1877 

Saka  1878 

.^aka  1879 

Saka  1880 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  21 

Mar.  22 

Mar:  22 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Mar.  21, 

1955 

Mar.  20, 

1956 

Mar.  21, 
1957 

Mar.  21, 
1958 

Mar.  21, 
1959 

Apr.  11 

Apr.  1 

Apr.  19 

Apr.  8 

Mar.  29 

Apr.  15 

Apr.  5 

Apr.  23 

Apr.  12 

Apr.  2 

May  17 

May  6 

May  24 

May  13 

May  3 

Aug.  14 

Aug.  3 

Aug.  21 

Aug.  10 

Aug.  29 

Aug.  21 

Aug.  11 

Aug.  29 

Aug.  19 

Sep.  6 

Oct.  4-7 

Oct.  23-26 

Oct.  11-14 

Sep.  30-Oct. 

3  Oct.  19-21 

Oct.  26-28 

Nov.  14-16 

Nov.  2-4 

Oct.  22-24 

Nov.  10-12 

Nov.  10 

Nov.  29 

Nov.  18 

Nov.  7 

Nov.  26 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  20 

Jan.  8 

Dec.  28 

Jan.  16 

Jan.  23 

Feb.  11 

Jan.  30 

Jan.  19 

Feb.  7 

Jan.  28 

Feb.  16 

Feb.  5 

Jan.  24 

Feb.  12 

Feb.  20 

Mar.  10, 

1956 

Feb.  27 

Feb.  16 

Mar.  7, 
1959 

Mar.  8, 

1955 

Mar.  26, 

1956 

Mar.  15, 

1957 

Mar.  5, 
1958 

Mar.  9, 

1955 

Mar.  27, 

1956 

Mar  16, 

1957 

Mar.  6, 

1958 

Apr. 

16 

Apr.  8 

Mar. 

30 

Apr. 

19 

Apr.  4 

Dec. 

25 

Dec.  25 

Dec. 

25 

Dec. 

25 

Dec.  25 

May 

28 

May 

20 

May 

11 

Apr. 

26 

Apr. 

18 

June 

3 

May 

24 

May 

12 

May 

2 

Apr; 

21 

Aug. 

10 

July 

30 

July 

19 

July 

9 

June 

28 

Sep. 

9 

Aug. 

29 

-Aug. 

18 

Aug. 

7 

July 

28 

Oct. 

18 

Oct. 

7 

Sep. 

25 

Sep. 

15 

Sep. 

4 

Nov. 

9 

Oct. 

29 

Oct. 

17 

Oct. 

7 

Sep. 

26 

Proposed  all-India  holiday. 


136 


REPORT  OF  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


List  of  Holidays  for  different  States — contd. 
(9)  WEST  BENGAL  HOLIDAYS 


Festivals 

1954-55 
Saka  1876 

D  a  t 

1955-56 
Saka  1877 

es  of  Fest 

^ 1956-57 

Saka  1878 

i  v  a  1  s 

1957-58 
£aka  1879 

1958-59 
Saka  1880 

Indian  New  Year’s  Day* 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  21 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  22 

Me?a  Samkranti 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  14 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  13 

Independence  Day 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Mahatma  Gandhi’s  Birthday 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

English  New  Year’s  Day 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Netaji’s  Birthday 

Jan.  23 

Jan.  23 

Jan.  23 

Jan.  23 

Jan.  23 

Republic  Day 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Mahavisuva  Day* 

Mar.  21, 
1955 

Mar.  20, 
1956 

Mar.  21, 

1957 

Mar.  21, 
1958 

Mar.  21, 
1959 

Dasahara 

June  11 

May  31 

June  17 

June  7 

May  28 

Rathayatra 

July  2 

June  21 

July  9 

June  29 

June  19 

Punaryatra 

July  10 

June  29 

July  17 

July  7 

June  27 

Jhulanayatra 

Aug.  10 

July  30 

Aug.  17 

Aug.  6 

Aug.  25 

JanmafjtamI 

Aug.  21 

Aug.  10 

Aug.  29 

Aug.  18 

Sep.  6 

Mahalaya  Amavasya 

Sep.  26 

Oct.  15 

Oct.  3 

Sep.  23 

Oct.  12 

Durga  Puja 

Oct.  4-7 

Oct.  23-26 

Oct.  11-14 

Sop.  30-Oct.  3 

Oct.  19-22 

Lakfmi  Puja 

Oct.  11 

Oct.  30 

Oct.  19 

Oct.  8 

Oct.  27 

Kali  Puja 

Oct.  25 

Nov.  13 

Nov.  1 

Oct.  22 

Nov.  10 

Bhratf  Dvitiya 

Oct.  28 

Nov.  16 

Nov.  4 

Oct.  24 

Nov.  12 

Jagaddhatri  Puja 

Nov.  5 

Nov.  24 

Nov.  12 

Oct.  31 

Nov.  19 

f^ri  Paiicami 

Jan.  28 

Feb.  16 

Feb.  5 

Jan.  25 

Feb.  12 

Mahasivaratri 

Feb.  20 

Mar.  10, 
1956 

Feb.  27 

Feb.  16  ■ 

Mar.  7, 
1959 

Dolayatra 

Mar.  8, 

1955 

Mar.  26, 

1956 

Ma,r/ 16, 

1957 

Mar.  5, 

1958 

Good  Friday 

Apr.  16 

Apr.  8 

Mar.  30 

Apr.  19 

Apr.  4 

Easter  Saturday 

Apr.  17 

Apr.  9 

Mar.  31 

Apr.  20 

Apr.  5 

Christinas  Day 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Deo.  25 

Dec.  25 

Id-ul-Fitr 

June  3 

May  24 

May  12 

May  2 

Apr.  21 

Id-uz-Zuha 

Aug.  10 

July  30 

July  19 

July  9 

June  28 

Muharram 

Sep.  9 

Aug.  29 

Aug.  18 

Aug.  7 

July  28 

*  Proposed  all-India  holiday. 


LIST  OF  HOLIDAYS 


137 


List  of  Holidays  for  different  States — contd. 


(10)  HYDERABAD  HOLIDAYS 


Festivals 

D  a 

tes  of  Fest 

i  v  a  1  s 

1954-55 

1955-56 

1956-57 

1957-58 

Saka  1876 

i^aka  1877 

3aka  1878 

Saka  1879 

Indian  New  Year’s  Day* 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  21 

Mar.  22 

Independence  Day 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug  15 

Mahatma  Gandhi’s  Birthday 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

English  New  Year’s  Day 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Tila  Sa  ink  r  anti 

Jan.  14 

Jan.  14 

Jan.  13 

Jan.  14 

Republic  Day 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Mahavi^uva  Day* 

(Jamshedi  Nauroj) 

Mar.  21, 

1955 

Mar.  20, 
1956 

Mar.  21, 
1957 

Mar.  21, 
1958 

Ramanavami 

Apr.  11 

Apr.  1 

Apr.  19 

Apr.  8 

Mahavir’s  Birthday 

Apr.  15 

Apr.  5 

Apr.  23 

Apr.  12 

Raksa .  Bandhana 

Aug.  14 

Aug.  3 

Aug.  21 

Aug.  10 

Goknla^ami 

Aug.  21 

Aug.  11 

Aug.  29 

Aug.  19 

Gajjesa  Caturthi 

Sep..  1 

Sep.  19 

Sep.  8 

Aug.  28 

Ananta  Caturdasi 

Sep.  11 

Sep.  30 

Sep.  18 

Sep.  7 

Dussera 

Oct.  6-7 

Oct.  25-26 

Oct.  13-14 

Oct.  2-3 

Diwali . 

Oct.  25-26 

Nov.  13-14 

Nov.  1-2 

Oct.  21-22 

Guru  Nanak’s  Birthday 

Nov.  10 

Nov.  29 

Nov.  18 

Nov.  7 

Guru  Govinda  Singh’s  Birthday 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  20 

Jan.  8 

Dec.  28 

Mahasivaratri 

Feb.  20 

Mar.  10, 

1956 

Feb.  27 

Feb.  16 

Holi,  1st  day 

Mar.  8, 

1955 

Mar.  26, 

1956 

Mar.  15, 

1957 

Mar.  5, 
1958 

Holi,  2nd  day 

Mar.  9, 

1955 

Mar.  27, 

1956 

Mar.  16, 

1957 

Mar.  6, 
1958 

Good  Friday 

Apr.  16 

Apr.  8 

Mar.  30 

Apr.  19 

Christmas  Day 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Sab-e-Barat 

Apr.  19 

Apr.  9 

Mar.  28, 
1956 

Mar.  18, 
1957 

Mar.  7, 
1958 

Id-pl  Fitr 

June  3 

May  24 

May  12 

May  2 

Id-uz-Zuha 

Aug.  10 

July  30 

July  19 

July  9 

Muharram 

Sep.  9 

Aug.  29 

Aug.  18 

Aug.  7 

Duazdaham  Shariff  (Id-e-MiladJ 

Nov.  9 

Oct,  29 

Oct.  17 

Oct.  7 

* 


1958-59 
Saka  1880 

Mar.  22 
Aug.  15 
Oofc.  2 
Jan.  1 
Jan.  14 
Jan.  26 
Mar.  21, 
1959 


Mar.  29 
Apr.  2 
Aug.  29 
Sep.  6 
Sep.  16 
Sep.  26 
Oct.  20-21 
Nov.  10 
Nov.  26 
Jan.  16 
Mar.  7, 
1959 


Apr.  4 
Dec.  25 


Feb.  24, 
1959 


Apr.  21 
June  28 
July  28 
Sep,  26 


Proposed  all-India  holiday. 


138 


REPORT  OF  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


List  of  Holidays  for  different  States — contd. 


(11)  JAMMU  AND  KASHMIR  HOLIDAYS 


Festivals 

D 

a  t  e  s  of  F 

estiva  Is 

1954-55 

1955-56 

1956-57 

1957-58 

1958-69 

6aka  1876 

Saka  1877 

£aka  1878 

6aka  1879 

$aka  1880 

Indian  New  Year’s  Day* 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  21 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  22 

Vaisakhi 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  13 

Independence  Day 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Mahatma  Gandhi's  Birthday 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

English  New  Year’s  Day 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Republic  Day 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Mahaviijuva  Day* 

(  Nauroj  ) 

Mar.  21, 
1955 

Mar.  20, 
1956 

Mar.  21, 
1957 

Mar.  21, 
1958 

Mar.  21 
1959 

Sthapana  Navaratra 

Apr.  4 

Mar.  24, 
1955 

Apr.  12 

Apr.  1, 
1957 

— 

Mar.  21, 

1958 

Ramanavami 

Apr.  11 

Apr.  1 

Apr.  19 

Apr.  8. 

Mar.  29 

Mahavir’s  Birthday 

Apr.  15 

Apr.  5 

Apr.  23 

Apr.  12 

Apr.  2 

Buddha  Jayanti 

May  17 

May  6 

May  24 

May  13 

May  8 

Raksa  Bandhana 

Aug.  14 

Aug.  3 

Aug.  21 

Aug.  10 

Aug.  29 

Janmas^aml 

Aug.  21 

Aug.  11 

Aug.  29 

Aug.  19 

Sep.  -6 

Pitr  Amavasya 

Sep.  26 

Oct.  15 

Oct.  3 

Sep.  23 

Oct.  12 

Mahanavami 

Oct.  6 

Oct.  25 

Oct.  13 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  20 

Dussera 

Oot.  7 

Oct.  26 

Oct.  14 

Oct.  3 

Oct.  21 

Diwali 

Oct.  26 

Nov.  14 

Nov.  2 

Oct.  22 

Nov.  10 

Guru  Nanak’s  Birthday 

Nov.  10 

Nov.  29 

Nov.  18 

Nov.  7 

Nov.  26 

Guru  Govinda  Singh’s  Birthday 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  20 

Jan.  8 

Dec.  28 

Jan.  16 

Vasanta  Pancami 

Jan.  28 

Feb.  16 

Feb.  5 

Jan.  24 

Feb.  12 

Mahasivaratri 

Feb.  20 

Mar.  10, 
1956 

Feb.  27 

Feb.  16 

Mar.  7, 
1959 

Holi,  1st  day 

Mar.  8, 
1955 

— 

Mar.  26, 
1956 

Mar  5, 

1958 

— 

Mar.  15, 

.1957 

Holi,  2nd  day 

Mar.  9, 
1955 

— 

Mar.  27, 
1956 

Mar  6, 
1958 

— 

Mar.  16, 

1957 

Good  Friday 

Apr.  16 

Apr.  8 

Mar.  30 

Apr.  19 

Apr.  4 

Christmas  Day 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Sab-e-Barat 

Apr.  19 

Apr.  9 

Mar.  28, 

1956 

Mar.  18, 

1957 

Mar.  7, 
1958 

Feb.  24, 
1959 

S&b-e-Qdar 

May  31 

May  20 

May.  9 

Apr.  28 

Apr.  17 

Jamat-ul-Vida 

May  28 

May,  20 

May  11 

Apr.  26 

Apr.  18 

Id-ul-Fitr 

June  3 

May  24 

May  12 

May  2 

Apr.  21- 

Id-uz-Zuha 

Aug.  10 

July  30 

July  19 

July  9 

June  28 

Muharram 

Sep.  9 

Aug.  29 

Aug.  18 

Aug.  7 

July  28 

Id-e-Milad 

Nov.  9 

Oct.  29 

Oct.  17 

Oct.  7 

Sep.  26 

Proposed  all-India  holiday. 


TJST  OF  HOLIDAYS 


139^ 


List  of  Holidays  for  differnt  States — contd. 


(12)  MADHYA  BHARAT  HOLIDAYS 


Festivals 


1954 

-55 

£aka  1876 

Indian  New  Year's  Day* 

Mar.’ 

22 

Independence  Day 

Aug. 

15 

Mahatma  Gandhi’s  Birthday 

Oct. 

2 

English  New  Year’s  Day 

Jan. 

1 

Tila  Samkranti 

Jan. 

14 

Republic  Day 

Jan. 

26 

Mahavisuva  Day* 

Mar. 

21, 

(Nauroj) 

1955 

Gudi  Padw- 

Apr. 

4 

Ramanavami 

Apr. 

11 

Mahavir’s  Birthday 

Apr. 

15 

Raksa  Bandhana 

Aug. 

14 

Janmas^ami 

Aug. 

21 

Gariesa  Caturthi 

Sep. 

1 

Dol  Gyaras 

Sep. 

9 

Sarvapitr  Amavasya 

Sep. 

26 

Dussera 

Oct. 

6-7 

Diwali 

Oct. 

26-28 

Guru  Nanak’s  Birthday 

Nov. 

10 

Guru  Govinda  Singh’s  Birthday 

Jan. 

1 

Mahasivaratri 

Feb. 

20 

Holi,  1st  day 

Mar. 

8, 

1955 

• 

Holi,  2nd  day 

Mstr.- 

1955 

Christmas  Day 

Dec. 

25 

Id-ul-Fitr 

June 

b 

Id-uz-Zuha 

Aug. 

10 

Muharram 

Sep. 

9 

Bara  Wafat 

Nov. 

9 

* 


Dates  of  Festivals 


1955-56 
Saka  1877 

1956-57 
^aka  1878 

1957-58 
^aka  1879 

1958-59 
Saka  1880 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  21 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  22 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  14 

Jan.  13 

Jan.  14 

Jan.  14 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Mar.  20, 
1956 

Mar.  21, 
1957 

Mar.  21, 
1958 

Mar.  21, 
1959 

Mar.  24, 

1955 

Apr.  12 

Apr.  1, 

1957 

Mar.  21, 

1958 

Apr.  1 

Apr.  19 

Apr.  8 

Mar.  29 

Apr.  5 

Apr.  23 

Apr.  12 

Apr.  2 

Aug.  3 

Aug.  21 

Aug.  10 

Aug.  29 

Aug.  11 

Aug.  29 

Aug.  19 

Sep.  6 

Sep.  19 

Sep.  8 

Aug.  28 

Sep.  16 

Sep.  27 

Sep.  15 

Sep.  4 

Sep.  23 

Oct.  15 

Oct.  3 

Sep.  23 

Oct.  12 

Oct.  25-26 

Oct.  13-14 

Oct.  2-3 

Oct.  20-21 

Nov.  14-16 

Nov.  2-4 

Oct.  22-24 

Nov.  10-12 

Nov.  29 

Nov.  18 

Nov.  7 

Nov.  26 

Jan.  20 

Jan.  8 

Dec.  28 

Jan.  16 

Mar.  10„ 
1956 

Feb.  27 

Feb.  16 

Mar.  7, 
1959 

Mar.  26, 

1956 

Mar.  15, 

1957 

Mar.  5, 

1958 

Mar.  27, 

1956 

Mar.  16, 

1957 

Mar.  6, 

1958 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

May  24 

May 

12 

May 

2 

Apr. 

21 

J nly  30 

July 

19 

July 

9 

June 

28 

Aug.  29 

Aug. 

18 

Aug. 

7 

July 

28 

Oct.  29 

Ocfc 

17 

Oct. 

7 

Sep. 

26 

Proposed  all-India  holiday. 


m 


BEPOBT  OP  THE  GALEN  DAB  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


List  of  Holidays  for  different  States— contd. 
(13)  MYSORE  HOLIDAYS 


Festivals  D:a  tes  of  Festivals 


1954-55 

1955-56 

1956-57 

1957-58 

1958-59 

£aka  1876 

fSaka  1877 

^aka  1878 

f^aka  1879 

Saka  1880 

Indian  New  Year’s  Day* 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  21 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  22 

Vaisakhi 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  13 

Independence  Day 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Mahatma  Gandhi’s  Birthday 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

English  New  Year’s  Day 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Republic  Day 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Mahaviguva  Day* 

Mar.  21, 

Mar.  20, 

Mar.  21, 

Mar.  21, 

Mar.  21, 

1955 

1956 

1957 

1958 

1959 

Ramanavami 

Apr.  11 

Apr.  1 

Apr.  19 

Apr  8 

Mar.  29 

H.  H.  Maharaja’s  Birthday 

July  21 

July  11 

July  29 

July  18 

July  7 

Upakarma 

Aug.  14 

Aug.  3 

Aug.  21 

Aug.  10 

Aug.  29 

Gauri  Festival 

Aug.  31 

Sep.  19 

Sep.  7 

Aug.  27 

Sep.  16 

Ganesa  Caturthi 

Sep.  1 

Sep.  19 

Sep.  8 

Aug.  28 

Sep.  16 

Mahalaya  Amavasya 

Sep.  26 

Oct.  15 

Oct.  3 

Sep.  23 

Oct.  12 

Commencement  of  Dussera 

Sep.  28 

Oct.  16 

Oct.  5 

Sep.  24 

Oct.  13 

Mabanavami 

Oct.  6 

Oct.  25 

Oct  13 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  20 

Vijaya  Dasami 

Oct.  7 

Oct.  26 

Oct  14 

Oct.  3 

Oct.  21 

Naraka  Caturdasi 

Oct.  25 

Nov.  13 

Nov.  1 

Oct.  22 

Nov.  10 

Diwali 

Oct.  26 

Nov.  14 

Nov.  2 

Oct.  22 

Nov.  10 

Bali  Puja 

Oct.  27 

Nov.  15 

Nov.  3 

Oct.  23 

Nov.  11 

Mahasivaratri 

Feb.  20 

Mar.  10, 
1956 

Feb.  .27 

Feb.  16 

Mar.  7, 
1959 

Holi  Feast 

Mar.  8, 

1955 

Mar.  26, 

1956 

Mar.  16, 

1957 

Mar.  5, 
1958 

Good  Friday 

Christmas  Day 

Apr.  16 

Dec.  25 

Apr.  8 
Dec.  25 

Mar.  30 

Dec.  25 

Apr.  19 
Dec.  25 

Apr.  4 
Dec.  25 

Id-ul-Fitr  (Kutba  Ramzan) 
Id-uz-Zuha  (Bakrid) 

Muharram 

Id-e-Milad 

June  3 

Aug.  10 

Sep.  9 

Nov.  9 

May  24 
July  30 
Aug.  29 
Oct.  29 

May  12 
July  19 
Aug.  18 
Oct.  17 

May  2 
July  9 
Aug.  7  . 
Oct  7 

Apr.  21 
June  28 
July  28 
Sep.  26 

* 


Proposed  all- India  holiday. 


LIST  OF  HOLIDAYS 


141 


List  of  Holidays  for'  different  States^— aonfd. 


(14)  PATIALA  AND  EAST  PUNJAB  STATES  UNION  HOLIDAYS 


F  e  s  t  i 

v  a  1  s 

D  a 

t  e  s 

of  Fe 

s  t  i  v 

a  1  s 

‘  1954-i 

55 

1955-i 

56 

1956- 

-57 

1957- 

58 

1958 

-59 

^aka  1876 

£aka  1877 

Saka 

1878 

Saka 

1879 

kSaka  1880 

Indian  New  Year’s 

Day* 

Mar. 

22 

Mar. 

22 

Mar. 

21 

Mar. 

22 

Mar.- 

22 

Vaisakhi 

Apr. 

13 

Apr. 

13 

Apr. 

13 

Apr. 

13 

Apr. 

13 

Independence  Day 

Aug. 

15 

Aug. 

15 

Aug. 

15 

Aug. 

15 

Aug. 

15 

Mahatma  Gandhi’s 

Birthday 

Oct. 

2 

Oct. 

2 

Oct. 

2 

Oct. 

2 

Oct. 

2 

English  New  Year’ 

s  Day 

Jan. 

1 

Jan. 

1 

Jan. 

1 

Jan. 

1 

Jan. 

1 

H.  H.  Birthday 

Jan. 

7 

Jan. 

7 

Jan. 

7 

Jan. 

7 

Jan. 

7 

Baba  Ala  Singhji’s 

Day 

Jan. 

8 

Jan. 

8 

Jan. 

8 

Jan. 

8 

Jan. 

8 

Magbi 

Jan. 

14 

Jan. 

14 

Jan. 

13 

Jan. 

14 

Jan. 

14 

Bepublic  Day 

Jan. 

26 

Jan. 

26 

Jan. 

26 

Jan. 

26 

Jan. 

26 

Mahaviguva  Day* 

Mar. 

21, 

Mar. 

20, 

Mar. 

21, 

Mar. 

21, 

Mar. 

21, 

1955 

1956 

1957 

1958 

1959 

Bamanavami 

Apr.  11 

Apr. 

1 

Apr.  19 

Apr.  8 

Mar.  29 

Mahavir’s  Birthday 

Apr.  15 

Apr. 

5 

Apr.  23 

Apr  12 

Apr.  2 

Guru  Arjun  Dev’s  Martyrdom  Day 

June  4 

May 

25 

June  12 

June  2 

May  22 

Solono 

Aug.  14 

Aug. 

3 

Aug.  21 

Aug.  10 

Aug.  29 

Janmas^ami 

Aug.  21 

Aug. 

11 

Aug.  29 

Aug.  19 

Sep.  6 

Dussera 

Oct.  4-7 

Oct. 

23-26 

Oct.  11-14 

Sep.  30-Oct.  3 

Oct.  19-21 

Maharsi  Valmikf  s  Birthday 

Oct.  12 

Oct. 

31 

Oct.  19 

Oct.  8 

Oct.  27 

Diwali 

Oct.  26 

Nov. 

14 

Nov.  2 

Oct.  22 

Nov.  10 

Govardhana  Puja 

Oct.  27 

Nov. 

15 

Nov.  3 

Oct.  23 

Nov.  11 

Guru  Nanak’s  Birthday 

Nov.  10 

Nov. 

29 

Nov.  18 

Nov.  7 

Nov.  26 

Sahid-day  of  Guru  Teg  Bahadur 

Nov.  30 

Dec. 

19 

Dec.  7 

Nov.  26 

Dec.  15 

Guru  Govinda  Singh’s  Birthday 

Jan.  1 

Jan. 

20 

Jan.  8 

Dec.  28 

Jan.  16 

Vasanta  PancamI 

Jan.  28 

Feb. 

16 

Feb.  5 

Jan.  24 

Feb.  12 

Guru  Bavidas’s  Birthday 

Feb.  6 

Feb. 

25 

Feb.  14 

Feb.  4 

Feb.  23 

Mahasivaratri 

Feb.  20 

Mar.  10, 
1956 

Feb.  27 

Feb.  16 

Mar.  7, 
1959 

Holi 

Mar.  8, 
1955. 

Mar.  26, 

1956 

Mar.  15, 

1957 

Mar  5, 

1958 

Hola 

Mar.  9, 
1955 

Mar.  27, 

1956 

Mar.  16, 

1957 

Mar.  6, 

1958 

Christmas  Day 

Dec. '  25 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Dec. 

25 

Dec.  25 

Id-ul-Fitr 

June  3 

May  24 

May  12 

May 

2 

Apr.  21 

Id-uz-Zuha 

Aug.  10 

July  30 

July  19 

J&ly 

9 

June  28 

Muharram 

Sep.  9 

Aug.  29 

Aug.  18 

Aug. 

7 

July  28 

Id-e-Milad 

Nov.  9 

Oct.  29 

Oct.  17 

Oct, 

7 

Sep.  26 

* 


Proposed  all-India  holiday. 


142 


BEPOBT  OP  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


List  of  Holidaya  for  different  States — contd. 


(15)  RAJASTHAN  HOLIDAYS 


Festivals 

1954-55 
^aka  1876 

Dates 

1955-56 
£aka  1877 

of  Fes 

1956-57 
3aka  1878 

t  i  v  a  1  s 

1957-58 

3aka  1879 

1958-59 

iSaka  1880 

Indian  New  Year’s  Day* 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  21 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  22 

Independence  Day 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Mahatma  Gandhi’s  Birthday 

Oct.  2 

Oct.'  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

English  New  Year’s  Day 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Makaradi 

Jan.  14 

Jan.  14 

Jan.  13 

Jan.  14 

Jan.  14 

Republic  Day 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Mahavifuva  Day* 

Mar.  21, 
1955 

Mar.  20, 

1956  . 

Mar.  21, 
1957 

Mar.  21, 

1958 

Mar.  21, 
1959 

Sthapana  Navaratra 

Apr.  4 

Mar.  24, 

1955 

Apr.  12 

Apr.  1, 

1957 

Mar.  21, 

1958 

— 

Ramanavami 

Apr.  11 

Apr.  1 

Apr.  19 

Apr.  8 

Mar.  29 

Mahavir’s  Birthday 

Apr.  15 

Apr.  5 

Apr.  23 

Apr.  12 

Apr.  2 

Oli  ends  (Jaip) 

Apr.  18 

Apr.  7 

Apr.  25 

Apr.  14 

Apr.  4‘ 

Buddha  Jayanti 

May  17 

May  6 

May  24 

May  13 

May  3 

Pratap  Jayanti 

June  3 

May  24 

June  11 

June  1 

May  21 

Raktja  Bandhana 

Aug.  14 

Aug.  3 

Aug.  21 

Aug.  10 

Aug.  29 

JanmnstamI 

Aug.  21 

Aug.  11 

Aug.  29 

Aug.  19 

Sep.  6 

Ganesa  Caturthi 

Sep.  1 

Sep.  19 

Sep.  8 

Aug.  28 

Sep.  16 

Ananta  Gaturdasi 

Sep.  11 

Sep.  30 

Sep.  18 

Sep.  7 

Sep.  26 

Sarvapitr  ^raddha 

Sep.  26 

Oct.  15 

Oct.  3 

Sep.  23 

Oct.  12 

Sthapana  Navaratra 

Sep.  28 

Oct.  16 

Oct.  5 

Sep.  24 

Oct.  13 

Dussera 

Oct.  4-7 

Oct.  23-26 

Oct.  11-14 

Sep.  30-Oct.  3 

Oct.  19-21 

Diwali 

Oct.  26-28 

Nov.  14-16 

Nov.  2-4 

Oct.  22-24 

Nov.  10-12 

Guru  Nanak’s  Birthday 

Nov.  10 

Nov.  29 

Nov.  18 

Nov.  7 

Nov.  26 

Guru  Govinda  Singh’s  Birthday 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  20 

Jan.  8 

Dec.  28 

Jan.  16 

Vasanta  Pancami 

Jan.  28 

Feb.  16 

Feb.  5 

Jan.  24 

Feb.  12 

Mahasivaratri 

Seb.  20 

Mar.  10, 

1956 

Feb.  27 

Feb.  16 

Mar.  7, 
1959 

Holi,  1st  day 

Mar.  8, 

1955 

Mar.  26, 

1956 
Mar.  15, 

1957 

Mar.  5, 

1958 

Holi,  2nd  day 

Mar.  9, 

1955 

Mar.  27, 

1956 
Mar.  16, 

1957 

Mar.  '6, 

1958 

Christmas  Day 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Id-ul-Fitr 

June  3 

May  24 

May  12 

May  2 

Apr.  21 

Lhuz-Zuha 

Aug.- 10 

July  30 

July  19 

July  9 

June  28 

Muharram 

Sep.  9 

Aug.  29 

Aug.  18 

Aug.  7 

July  28 

Bara  Wafat 

Nov.  9 

Got.  29- 

Oct.  17 

Oct.  7 

Sep.  26 

* 


Proposed  all-India  holiday. 


LIST  OP  HOLIDAY0  143 

List- of  Holidays  for  different  States — cdntd. 


(16)  SAURASHTRA  HOLIDAYS 

Festivals  Dates  of  Festivals 


1954-55 

1955-56 

1956-57 

1957-58 

1958-59 

$aka  1876 

Saka  1877' 

£aka  1878 

gaka  1879 

Saka  1880 

Indian  New  Year’s  Day* 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  21 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  22 

Independence  Day 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Mahatma  Gandhi’s  Birthc 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

English  New  Year’s  Day 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Makaradi 

Jan.  14 

Jan.  14 

Jan.  13 

Jan.  14 

Jan.  14 

Republic  Day 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Mahaviguva  Day* 

Mar.  21, 

Mar.  20, 

Mar.  21, 

Mar.  21, 

Mar.  21, 

(Jamshedi  Nauroj) 

1955 

1956 

1957 

1958 

1959 

Ramanavami 

Apr.  11 

Apr.  1 

Apr.  19 

Apr.  8 

Mar.  29 

Mahavir’s  Birthday 

.  Apr.  15 

Apr.  5 

Apr.  23 

Apr.  12 

Apr.  2 

Oli  ends  (Jain)  (Caitra  S  15) 

Apr.  18 

Apr.  7 

Apr.  25 

Apr.  14 

Apr.  4 

Cocoanut  Day 

Aug.  14 

Aug.  3 

Aug.  21 

Aug.  10 

Aug.  29 

Shilisatam  (iSitala  Saptami) 

Aug.  20 

Aug.  10 

Aug.  28 

Aug.  17 

Sep.  5 

Gokulastami 

Aug.  21 

Aug.  11 

Aug.  29 

Aug.  19 

Sep.  6 

Jain  Festival  (^ravapa  K  13) 

Aug.  26 

Aug.  15 

Sep.  3 

Aug.  23 

Sep.  11 

Jain  Festival  (^ravapa  K  30) 

Aug.  28 

Aug.  17 

Sep.  4 

Aug.  25 

Sep.  13 

Ganesa  Caturthi 

Sep.  1 

Sep.  19 

Sep.  8 

Aug.  28 

Sep.  16 

Paryugapa  Parva  (Jain) 

Sep.  2 

Sep.  21 

Sep.  9 

Aug.  29 

Sep.  17 

Durgagtarrn 

Oct.  5 

Oct.  24 

Oct.  12 

Oct.  1 

Oct.  20 

Vijaya  Dasami 

Oct.  7 

Oct.  26 

Oct.  14 

Oct.  3 

Oct.  21 

Dhan-Teras 

Oct.  24 

Nov.  11 

Oct.  31 

Oct.  21 

Nov.  9 

Kali  Caudas 

Oct.  25 

Nov.  13 

•Nov.  1 

Oct.  22 

Nov.  10 

Diwali 

Oct.  26 

Nov.  14 

Nov.  2 

Oct.  22 

Nov.  10 

Guru  Nanak’s  Birthday 

Nov.  10 

Nov.  29 

Nov.  18 

Nov.  7 

Nov.  26 

Jain  Festival  (Kartika  S  15) 

Nov.  10 

Npv.  29 

Nov.  18 

Nov.  7 

Nov.  26 

Mahasivaratri 

Feb.  20 

Mar.  10, 
1956 

Feb.  27 

Feb.  16 

Mar.  7, 
1959 

Holi,  1st  day 

Mar.  8, 
1955 

Mar.  26, 

1956 

Mar.  15, 

1957 

Mar.  5, 

1958 

Holi,  2nd  day 

Mar.  9, 
1955 

Mar.  27, 

1956 

Mar.  16, 

1957 

Mar.  6, 

1958 

Good  Friday 

Apr.  16 

Apr.  8 

Mar.  30 

Apr.  19 

Apr,  4 

Christinas  Day 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Sab-e-Barat 

Apr.  19 

Apr.  9 

Mar.  28, 

1956 

Mar.  18, 

1957 

Mar.  7, 
1958 

Feb.  24, 
1959 

d-ul-Fitr 

June  3 

May  24 

May  12 

May  2 

Apr.  21 

Id-uz-Zuha 

Aug.  10 

July  30 

July  19 

July  9 

June  28 

Muharram 

Sep.  9 

Aug.  29 

Aug.  18 

Aug.  7 

July  28 

-Id-e-Milad 

Nov.  9 

Oct.  29 

Oct.  17 

Oct.  7 

Sep.  26 

* 


Proposed  all-India  holiday. 


144  REPORT  OF  THE  •CALENDAR  "REFORM  COMMITTEE 

List  of  Holidays  for  different  States— *ot>td. 


(17)  TRAVANCORE-COCHIN  HOLIDAYS 


Festivals 

1954-55 
£aka  1876 

D  a 

1955-56 
Saka  1877 

tes  of  Festivals 

1956-57  1957-58 

£aka  1878  £aka  1879 

1958-59 
Saka  1880 

Indian  New  Year’s  Day* 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  21 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  22 

Vishu 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  14 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  13 

Independence  Day 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Samadhi  day  of  Narayana  Guru 

Sep.  21 

Sep.  21 

Sep.  21 

Sep.  21 

Sep.  21 

Mahatma  Gandhi’s  Birthday 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

English  New’Year’s  Day 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Tai  Pongal 

Jan.  14 

Jan.  14 

Jan.  13 

Jan.  14 

Jan.  14 

Republic  Day 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jun.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Mahaviijuva  Day* 

Mar  .  21, 
1955 

Mar.  20, 
1956 

Mar.  21, 
1957 

Mar.  21, 
1958 

Mar.  21, 
1959 

Kavka$aka  Vavu 

July  29 

July  19 

Aug.  6 

July  27 

Aug.  15 

Avapi  Avi^am 

Aug.  14 

Aug.  3 

Aug.  21 

Aug.  10 

Aug.  28 

Sri  Jayanti  ( A?tami  Rohipi) 

Aug.  21 

Sep.  9 

Aug.  29 

Aug.  19 

Sep.  6 

Vinayaka  Caturthx 

Sep.  1 

Sep.  19 

Sep.  8 

Aug.  28 

Sep.  16 

First  Onam  Day 

Sep.  9 

Aug.  30 

Aug.  19 

Sep.  5 

Aug.  26 

Thiru  Onam  Day 

Sep.  10 

Aug.  31 

Aug.  20 

Sep.  6 

Aug.  27 

Third  Onam  Day 

Sep.  11 

Sep.  1 

Aug.  21 

Sep.  7 

Aug.  28 

Fourth  Onam  Day 

Sep.  12 

Sep.  2 

Aug.  22 

Sep.  8 

Aug.  29 

Durgastami 

Oct.  5 

Oct.  24 

Oct.  12 

Oct.  1 

Oct.  20 

Mahanavami 

Oct.  6 

Oct.  25 

Oct.  13 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  20 

Vijaya  Dasami 

Oct.  7 

Oct.  26 

Oct.  14 

Oct.  3 

Oct.  21 

Diwali 

Oct.  25 

Nov.  13 

Nov.  1 

Oct.  21 

Nov.  10 

Makara  Vavu 

Jan.  23 

Feb.  11 

Jan.  30 

Jan.  19 

Feb.  7 

Mahasivaratri 

Feb.  20 

Mar.  10, 
1956 

Feb.  27 

Feb.  16 

Mar.  7, 
1959 

Good  Friday 

Apr.  16 

Apr.  8 

Mar.  30 

Apr.  19 

Apr. 

4 

Easter  Saturday 

Apr.  17 

Apr.  9 

Mar.  31 

Apr.  20 

Apr. 

5 

Ascension  Day  (Holy  Thursday) 

May  27 

May  19 

May  10 

May  30 

May 

15 

Whit  Sunday  (Pentecost) 

June  6 

May  29 

May  20 

June  9 

May 

25 

Christmas  Eve 

Dec.  24 

Dec.  24 

Dec.  24 

Dec.  24 

Dec. 

24 

Christmas  Day 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Dec. 

25 

Id-ul  Fitr 

June  3 

May  24 

May  12 

May  2 

Apr. 

21 

Idfiiz-Zuha 

Aug.  10 

July  30 

July  19 

July  9 

June 

28 

Muharram 

Sep.  9 

Apg.  29 

Aug.  18 

Aug.  7 

July 

28 

Id-e-Milad 

Nov.  9 

Oct.  29 

Oct.  17 

Oct.  7 

Sep. 

26 

* 

Proposed  all-India 

holiday. 

JList 


Festivals 


Indian  New  Year’s  Day* 
Vaisakhi 

Independence  Day 
Mahatma  Gandhi’s  Birthday 
English  New  Year’s  Day 
Bepublic  Day 
Mahaviguva  Day* 


Bamanavami 
Mahavir’s  Birthday 
Buddha’s  Birthday 
Rakga  Bandhana 
Janmagtami 
Ananta  Caturdasi 
Dnssera 
Dipamalika 
Yama  Dvitiya 
Pugkar  Fair 

Guru  Govinda  Singh’s  Birthday 
Vasanta  Pancami 
Mahasivaratri 

Holi,  1st  day 


Holi,  2nd  day 


Good  Friday 
Christmas  Day 


Id-ul-Fitr 
Id-uz-Zuha 
Muharram 
Bara  Wafat 

* 


LIST  OF  HOLIDAYS 


.145 


of  Holidays  for  different  State*— contd. 


(18)  AJMER  HOLIDAYS 


Dates 

of  F 

e  s  t  i  v 

a  1  s 

1954-55 

1955 

,-56 

1956-57 

1957- 

58 

1958 

-59 

^aka 

1876 

f^aka 

1877 

3aka  1878 

Saka  ! 

1879 

fSaka 

1880 

Mar. 

22 

Mar. 

22 

Mar. 

21 

Mar. 

22 

Mar. 

22 

Apr. 

13 

Apr. 

13 

Apr. 

13 

Apr. 

13 

Apr. 

13 

Aug. 

15 

Aug. 

15 

Aug. 

15 

Aug. 

15 

Aug. 

15 

Oct. 

2 

Oet. 

2 

Oct. 

2 

Oct. 

2 

Oct. 

2 

Jan. 

1 

Jan. 

1 

Jan. 

1 

Jan. 

1 

Jan. 

1 

Jan. 

26 

Jan. 

26 

Jan. 

26 

Jan. 

26 

Jan. 

26 

Mar. 

21. 

Mar. 

20, 

Mar. 

21, 

Mar. 

21, 

Mar. 

21, 

1955 

1956 

1957 

1958 

1959 

Apr. 

11 

Apr. 

1 

Apr. 

19 

Apr. 

8 

Mar. 

29 

Apr. 

15 

Apr. 

5 

Apr. 

23 

Apr. 

12 

Apr. 

2 

May 

17 

May 

6 

May 

24 

May 

13 

May 

3 

Aug. 

14 

Aug. 

3 

Aug. 

21 

Aug. 

10 

Aug. 

29 

Aug. 

21 

Aug. 

11 

Aug. 

29 

Aug. 

19 

Sep. 

6 

Sep. 

11 

Sep. 

30 

Sep. 

18 

Sep. 

7 

Sep. 

26 

Oct. 

4-7 

Oct. 

23-26 

Oct. 

11-14 

Sep.  30-Oct.  3 

Oct. 

19-21 

Oct.  26-27 

Nov. 

14-15 

Nov. 

2-3 

Oct.  22-23 

Nov. 

10-11 

Oct. 

28 

Nov. 

16 

Nov. 

4 

Oct. 

24 

Nov. 

12 

Nov. 

10 

Nov. 

29 

Nov. 

18 

Nov. 

7 

Nov. 

26 

Jan. 

1 

Jan. 

20 

Jan. 

8 

Dec. 

28 

Jan. 

16 

Jan. 

28 

Feb. 

16 

Feb. 

5 

Jan. 

24 

Feb. : 

12 

Feb. 

20 

Mar. 

10, 

Feb. 

27 

Feb. 

16 

Mar. 

7, 

1956 

1959 

Mar. 

8, 

_ 

Mar. 

26, 

Mar. 

5, 

— 

1955 

1956 

1958 

Mar. 

15, 

1957 

Mar. 

9, 

_ 

Mar. 

27, 

Mar. 

6, 

— 

1955 

1956 

1958 

Mar. 

16, 

1957 

Apr. 

16 

Apr. 

8 

Mar. 

30 

Apr. 

19 

Apr.  4 

Dec. 

25 

Dec. 

25 

Dec. 

25 

Dec. 

25 

Dec.  25 

June 

3 

M?iy 

24 

May 

12 

May 

2 

Apr. 

21 

"Aug. 

10 

July 

30 

July 

19 

July 

9 

June 

28 

Sep. 

9 

Aug. 

29 

Aug. 

18 

Aug. 

7 

July 

28 

Nov. 

9 

Oct. 

29 

Oct. 

17 

Oct. 

7 

3ep. 

26 

Proposed  all-India  holiday. 


REPORT  OF  THE*  0 ALEH® AR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 

List  of  Holidays  for  different 'States — contd. 

(19)  BHOPAL  HOLIDAYS 


Festivals  Dates  of  Pestiva.18 


1954-55 

1955-56 

1956-57 

1957-58 

1958-59 

£aka  1876 

Sake  1877 

$aka  1878 

£aka  1879 

&aka  1880 

Indian  New  Year’s  Day* 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  21 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  22 

VaiSdkhi 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  13 

Independence  Day 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

H.  H.  Birthday 

Sep.  9 

Sept.  9 

Sep.  9 

Sep.  9 

Sep.  9 

Mahatma  Gandhi's  Birthday 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

English  New  Year’s  Day 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Tila  Samkranti 

Jan.  14 

Jan.  14 

Jan.  13 

Jan.  14 

Jan.  14 

Republic  Day 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Mahaviguva  Day* 

Mar.  21, 

Mar.  20, 

Mar.  21, 

Mar.  21, 

Mar.  21, 

1955 

1956 

1957 

1958 

1959 

Ramanavami 

Apr.  11 

Apr.  1 

Apr.  19 

Apr.  8 

Mar.  29 

Mahavira  Jayanti 

Apr.  15 

A$r.  5 

Apr.  23 

Apr.  12 

Apr.  2 

Buddha  Purnima 

May  17 

May  6 

May  24 

May  13 

May  3 

Raksa  Bandhana 

Aug.  14 

Aug.  3 

Aug.  21 

Aug.  10 

Aug.  29 

Janmsijtaini 

Aug.  21 

Aug.  11 

Aug.  29 

Aug.  19 

Sep.  6 

Ganesa  Caturthi 

Sep.  1 

Sep.  19 

Sep.  8 

Aug.  28 

Sep.  16 

Dussera 

Oct.  5-7 

Oct.  24-26 

Oct.  12-14 

Oct.  1-3 

Oct.  20-21 

Diwali 

Oct.  27-28 

Nov.  15-16 

Nov.  3-4 

Oct.  23-24 

Nov.  11-12 

Guru  Nanak’s  Birthday 

Nov.  10 

Nov.  29 

Nov.  18 

Nov.  7 

Nov.  26 

Vasanta  Pancami 

Jan.  28 

Feb.  16 

Feb.  5 

Jan.  24 

Feb.  12 

Mahasivaratri 

Feb.  20 

Mar.  10, 
1956 

Feb.  27 

Feb.  16 

Mar.  7, 
1959 

Holi,  1st  day 

Mar.  8, 

1955 

Mar.  26, 

1956 

Mar.  15, 

1957 

Mar.  5, 
1958 

Holi,  2nd  day 

Mar.  9, 
1955 

Mar.  27, 

1956 

Mar.  16, 

1957 

Mar.  6, 

1958 

Good  Friday 

Apr.  16 

Apr.  8 

Mar.  30 

Apr.  19 

Apr.  4 

Christmas  Day 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Sab-e-Barat 

Apr.  19 

Apr.  9 

Mar.  28, 

1956 

Mar.  18, 

1957 

Mar.  7, 

1958 

Feb.  24. 
1959 

Janjat-ul-Vida 
(Last  Friday  of  Ramadan) 

May  28 

May  20 

May  11 

Apr.  26 

Apr.  18 

Id-ul-Fitr 

June  3 

May  24 

May  12 

May  2 

At»r.  21 

I<J-uz-Zuha 

Aug.  10 

July  30 

July  19 

July  9 

June  28 

Muharram 

Sep.  9 

Aug.  29 

Aug.  18 

Aug.  7 

July  28 

Bare  Wafat 

Nov.  9 

Oct.  29 

Oct.  17 

Oct.  7 

Sep.  26 

Giarhween  Sharif 

Dec.  8 

Nov.  2.7 

Nov.  15 

Nov.  4 

Oct.  25 

* 


Proposed  all- India  holiday. 


LIST  QF  HOLIDAYS  M7 

Iyiat  M  Holidays  for  different  St#te«--rcensM. 


(20)  BILASPUR  HOLIDAYS 


Festivals 

1954-55 
Saka  1876 

D  a 

1955:56 
^aka  1877 

t  e  s  of  E  e 

1956-57 
£aka  1878 

s  t  i  v  a  1  s 

1957-58 
£aka  1879 

1958-59 
6aka  1880 

Indian  New  Year’s  Day* 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  21 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  22 

Vaisakhi 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  13 

Independence  Day 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Mahatma  Gandhi’s  Birthday 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

English  New  Year’s  Day 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Republic  Day 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Mahaviguva  Day* 

Mar.  21,. 
1955 

Mar.  20, 
1956 

Mar.  21, 
1957 

Mar.  21, 
1958 

Mar.  21, 
1959 

Ramanavami 

Apr.  11 

Apr.  1 

Apr.  19 

Apr.  8 

Mar.  29 

Buddha’s  Birthday 

May  17 

May  6 

May  24 

May  13 

May  3 

Janmagtami 

Aug.  21 

Aug.  11 

Aug.  29 

Aug.  19 

Sep.  6 

Dussera 

Oct.  4-7 

Oct.  23-26 

Oct.  11-14 

Sep.  30-Oct.  3 

Oct.  19-21 

Diwali 

Oct.  26-27 

Nov.  14-15 

Nov.  2-3 

Oct.  22-23 

Nov.  10-11 

Guru  Nanak’s  Birbhda’ 

Nov.  10 

No.v.  29 

Nov.  18 

Nov.  7 

Nov.  26 

Mahasivaratri 

Eeb.  20 

Mar.  10, 
1956 

Feb.  27 

Feb.  16 

Mar.  7, 
1959 

Holi,  1st  day 

Mar.  8, 

1955 

Mar.  26, 

1956 

Mar.  15, 

1957 

Mar.  5, 

1958 

Holi,  2nd  day 

Mar.  9, 

1955 

Mar.  27, 

1956 

Mar.  16, 

1957 

Mar.  6, 

1958 

Good  Friday 

Apr.  16 

Apr.  8 

Mar.  30 

Apr.  19 

Apr.  4 

Christmas  Day 

Dec.  ”25 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Id-ul-Fitr 

June  3 

May  24 

May  12 

May 

2 

Apr.  21 

Id-uz-Zuha 

Aug.  10 

July  80 

July  19 

July 

9 

June  28 

Muharram 

Sep.  9 

Aug.  29 

Aug.  18 

Aug. 

7 

July  28 

Id-e-Milad 

Nov.  9 

Oct.  29 

Oct.  17 

Oct. 

7 

Sep.  26 

*  Proposed  all-India  holiday. 


C.R.— 27 


148 


BEPOBT  Off  THE  CALENDAR  BEffOBM  COMMITTEE 


List  of  'Holidays  for  different  States — contd. 

(21)  COORQ  HOLIDAYS 


Dates  of  F  e-s  t  i  v  a  1  s 


1954-55 
£aka  1876 

1955-56 
£aka  1877 

1956-57 
$aka  1878 

1957-58 
f^aka  1879 

1958-59 
£aka  1880 

Indian  New  Year’s  Day* 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  21 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  22 

Independence  Day 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Keil  Muhurth 

Sep.  3 

Sep.  3 

Sep.  3 

Sep.  3 

Sep.  3 

Mahatma  Gandhi’s  Birthday 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Kaveri  Samkramapa 

Oct.  17 

Oct.  17 

Oct.  16 

Oct.  17 

Oct.  17 

English  New  Year’s  Day 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan. 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Makaradi 

Jan.  14 

Jan.  14 

Jan.  13 

Jan.  14 

Jan.  14 

Republic  Day 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Mahavi^uva  Day* 

Mar.  21, 
1955 

Mar.  20, 
1956 

Mar.  21, 
1957 

Mar.  21, 
1958 

Mar.  21, 
1959 

Upakarma 

/ 

Aug.  14 

Aug.  3 

Aug.  21 

Aug.  10 

Aug.  29 

Sri  Kpjpa  Jayanti 

Aug.  21 

Aug.  11 

Aug.  29 

Aug.  19 

Sep.  6 

Vinayaka  CaturthI 

Sep.  1 

Sep.  19 

Sep.  8 

Aug.  28 

Sep.  16 

Mahalaya  Amavasya 

Sep.  26 

Oct.  15 

Oct.  3 

Sep.  23 

Oct.  12 

Ayudha  Puja 

Oct.  4 

Oct.  23 

Oct.  11 

Sep.  30 

Oct.  19 

Diwali 

Oct.  26 

Nov.  14 

Nov.  2 

Oct.  22 

Nov.  10 

Subrahmanya  §&§thl 

Deo.  1 

Dec.  20 

Dec.  8 

Nov.  27 

Dec.  16 

Mahasivaratri 

Feb.  20 

Mar.  10, 
1956 

Feb.  27 

Feb.  16 

Mar.  7, 
1959 

Good  Friday 

Apr.  16 

Apr.  8 

Mar.  30 

Apr.  19 

Apr. 

4 

Christmas  Day 

Deo.  25 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Dec. 

25 

Id-ul-Fitr  (Ramzan-id) 

June  3 

May  24 

May  12 

May 

2 

Apr. 

21 

Id-uz-Zuha  (Bakrid) 

Aug.  10 

July  30 

July  19 

July 

9 

June 

28 

Muharram 

Sep.  9 

Aug.  29 

Aug.  18 

Aug. 

7 

July 

28 

Id-e-Milad  (Miladi  Nobi) 

Nov.  9 

Oct.  29 

Oct.  17 

Oct. 

7 

Sep. 

26 

* 


Proposed  all-India  holiday. 


LIST  OF  HOLIDAYS 


149 


List  of  Holidays  for  different  States— contd. 
(22)  DELHI  HOLIDAYS 


Festivals  Dates  of  Festivals 


1954-55 

1955-56 

1956-57 

1957-58 

1958-59 

gaka  1876 

£aka  1877 

£aka  1878 

£aka  1879 

f^aka  1880 

Indian  New  Year’s  Day* 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  21 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  22 

VaisakhI 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  13 

Independence  Day 

Ang.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Mahatma  Gandhi’s  Birthday 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oot.  2 

Oct.  2 

English  New  Year’s  Day 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Republic  Day 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Mahavi$uva  Day* 

Mar.  21, 

Mar.  20, 

Mar.  21, 

Mar.  21, 

Mar.  21, 

1955 

1956 

1957 

1958 

1959 

Ramanavaml 

Apr.  11 

Apr.  1 

Apr.  19 

Apr.  8 

Mar.  29 

Mahavira  Jayanti 

Apr.  15 

Apr.  5 

Apr.  23 

Apr.  12 

Apr.  2 

Solono 

Aug.  14 

Aug.  3 

Aug.  21 

Aug.  10 

Aug.  29 

JanmastamI 

Aug.  21 

Aug.  11 

Aug.  29 

Aug.  19 

Sep.  6 

Ananta  Caturdasi 

Sep.  11 

Sep.  30 

Sep.  18 

Sep.  7 

Sep.  26 

Dussera 

Oct.  4-7 

Oct.  23-26 

Oct.  11-14 

Sep.  30-Oct.  3 

Oct.  19-21 

Bharat  Milap 

Oct.  8 

Oct.  27 

Oct.  15 

Oct.  4 

Oct.  23 

Diwali 

Oct.  26 

Nov.  14 

Nov.  2 

Oct.  22 

Nov.  10 

Govardhana  Puja 

Oct.  27 

Nov.  15 

Nov.  3 

Oct.  23 

Nov.  11 

Guru  Nanak’s  Birthday 

Nov.  10 

Nov.  29 

Nov.  18 

Nov.  7 

Nov.  26 

Sahid  Day  of  Guru  Teg  Bahadur 

Nov.  30 

Dec.  19 

Dec.  7 

Nov.  26 

Dec.  15 

Guru  Govinda  Singh’s  Birthday 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  20 

Jan.  8 

Dec.  28 

Jan.  16 

Vasanta  Paiicami 

Jan.  28 

Feb.  16 

Feb.  5 

Jan.  24 

Feb.  12 

Mahasivaratri 

Feb.  20 

Mar.  10, 
1956 

Feb.  27 

Feb.  16 

Mar.  7, 
1959 

Holi 

Mar.  8, 
1955 

Mar.  26, 

1956 

Mar.  15, 

1957 

Mar.  5, 

1958 

Dulhandi 

Mar.  9, 
1955 

Mar.  27, 

1956 

Mar.  16, 

1957 

Mar.  6, 

1958 

Good  Friday 

Apr.  16 

Apr.  8 

Mar.  30 

Apr.  19 

Apr.  4 

Christmas  Day 

Dec.  25 

Dec'.  25 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Id-ul-Fitr 

June  3 

May  24 

May  12 

May 

2 

Apr.  21 

Id-uz  Zuha 

Aug.  10 

July  30 

July  19 

July 

9 

June  28 

Muharram 

Sep.  9 

Aug.  29 

Aug.  18 

Aug. 

7 

July  28 

Id-e-Milad 

Nov.  9 

Oct.  29 

Oot.  17 

Oct. 

7 

Sep.  26 

* 


Proposed  all-India-  holiday. 


150 


REPOST  OF  THE  CAI»RNBAB  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


List  of  Holidays  fo?  different  Statesn-confd. 

(23)  HIMACHAL  PRADESH  HOLIDAYS 

Dates  of  Festivals 


1954-55 
$aka  1876 

Indian  New  Year's  Day* 

Mar.  22 

Vaisakhi 

Apr.  13 

Independence  Day 

Aug,  15 

Mahatma  Gandhi’s  Birthday 

Oct.  2 

English  New  Year’s  Day 

Jan.  1 

Maghi 

Tan.  14 

Republic  Day 

■an.  26 

H.  Swatantra  Divas 

Feb.  18 

Mahavifjuva  Day* 

Mar.  21, 
1955 

Ramanavami 

Apr,  11 

Rakga  Bandhana 

Aug.  14 

Janmagtami 

Aug.  21 

Dussera 

Oot.  4-7 

Mahargi  Valmiki’s  Birthday 

Oct.  12 

Diwali 

Oct.  26-27 

Tikka  Ceremony 

Oct.  28 

Guru  Nanak’s  Birthday 

Nov.  10 

Guru  Govinda  Singh’s  Birthday 

Jan,  1 

Vasanta  Paficami 

Jan.  28 

Guru  Ravi  Das’s  Birthday 

Feb.  6- 

Mahasivaratri 

Feb.  20 

Holi,  1st  day 

Mar.  8, 
1955 

Holi,  2nd  day 

Mar.  9, 
1955 

Good  Friday 

Apr.  16 

Christmas  Day 

Deo.  25 

Id-ul-Fitr 

June  3 

Id-uz-Zuha 

Aug.  10 

Muharram 

Sep.  9 

td-e-Milad 

Nov.  9 

^  1955-56 

1956-57 

1957-58 

1958-59 

Saka  1877 

£aka  1878 

^aka  1879 

k5aka 

1880 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  21 

Mar.  22 

Mar. 

22 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  13 

Apr.  13 

Apr. 

13 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug. 

15 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct. 

2 

Jan,  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan. 

1 

Jan.  14 

Jan.  13 

Jan.  14 

Jan. 

14 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan. 

26 

Feb.  18 

Feb.  18 

Feb.  18 

Feb. 

18 

Mar.  20, 

Mar.  21, 

Mar.  21, 

Mar. 

21. 

1956 

1957 

1958 

1959 

Apr.  1 

Apr.  19 

Apr.  8 

Mar.  29 

Aug.  3 

Aug.  21 

Ang.  10 

Aug.  29 

Aug.  11 

Aug.  29 

Aug.  19 

Sep.  6 

Oct.  23-26 

Oct.  11-14 

Sep.  30-Oct.3 

Oct.  19-21 

Oct.  31 

Oct.  19 

Oct.  8 

Oct.  27 

Nov.  14-15 

Nov.  2-3 

Oct.  22-23 

Nov.  10-11 

Nov.  16 

Nov.  4 

Oct.  24 

Nov.  12 

Nov.  29 

Nov.  18 

Nov.  7 

Nov.  26 

Jan.  20 

Jan.  8 

Dec.  28 

Jan.  16 

Feb.  16 

Feb.  5 

Jan.  24 

Feb.  12 

Feb.  25 

Feb.  14 

Feb.  4 

Feb.  23 

Mar.  10, 
1956 

Feb.  27 

Feb.  16 

Mar.  7, 
1959 

Mar.  26, 

1956 

Mar.  15, 

1957 

Mar.  5, 

1958 

Mar.  27, 

1956 

Mar.  16, 

1957 

Mar.  6, 

1958 

Apr.  8 

Mar.  30 

Apr.  19 

Apr.  4 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

May  24 

May  12 

May  2 

Apr.  21 

July  30 

July  19 

July  9 

June  28 

Aug.  29 

Aug.  18 

Aug.  7 

July  28 

Oct.  29 

Oct.  17 

Oct.  7 

Sep.  26 

*  Proposed  all-India  holiday. 


LIST  OF  HOLIDAYS 


151 


List  of  Holidays  for  different  States— conf</. 
(24)  KUTCH  HOLIDAYS 


Festivals 


1954-55 
^aka  1876 

Indian  New  Year’s  Day* 

Mar. 

22 

Independence  Day 

Aug. 

15 

Mahatma  Gandhi’s  Birthday 

Oct. 

2 

English  New  Year’s  Day 

Jan. 

1 

Makaradi 

Jan. 

14 

Republic  Day 

Jan. 

26 

Mahavi§uva  Day* 

Mar. 

21, 

1955 


D  a  t 

e  s  of 

Fe 

s  t  i'  v  a  1 

s 

1955 

-56 

1956- 

■57 

1957- 

58 

1958- 

■59 

^aka 

1877 

Saka 

1878 

^aka  1879 

rfaka 

1880 

Mar. 

22 

Mar. 

21 

Mar. 

22 

Mar. 

22 

Aug. 

15 

Aug. 

15 

Aug. 

15 

Aug. 

16 

Oct. 

2 

Oct. 

2 

Oct. 

'  2 

Oct! 

2 

Jan. 

1 

Jan. 

1 

Jan. 

1 

Jan. 

1 

Jan. 

14 

Jan. 

13 

Jan. 

14 

Jan. 

14 

Jan. 

26 

Jan. 

26 

Jan. 

26 

Jan. 

26 

Mar. 

20, 

Mar. 

21, 

Mar. 

21, 

Mar. 

21, 

1956 

1957 

1958 

'  1959 

Ramanavami 

Apr.  11 

Apr. 

1 

Apr.  19 

Apr. 

8 

Mar. 

29 

Mahavir’s  Birthday 

Apr.  15 

Apr. 

5 

Apr.  23 

Apr. 

12 

Apr. 

2 

Nirjala  (Bhim)  Agiaras 

June  12 

June 

1 

June  18 

June 

8 

May 

29 

Cocoanut  Day 

Aug.  14 

Aug. 

3 

Aug.  21 

Aug. 

10 

Aug. 

29 

&tala  Saptami 

Aug.  20 

Aug. 

10 

Aug.  28 

Aug. 

17 

Sep. 

5 

Gokulagtami 

Aug.  21 

Aug. 

11 

Aug.  29 

Aug. 

19 

Sep. 

6 

Ganesa  Gaturthi 

Sep. 

1 

Sep. 

19 

Sep.  8 

Aug. 

28 

Sep. 

16 

Samvatsari  &  Paryugana  Parva.  (Jain) 

Sep. 

2 

Sep. 

21 

Sep.  9 

Aug. 

29 

Sep. 

17 

H.  H.  Birthday 

Sep.  24 

Oct. 

13 

Oct.  2 

Sep. 

22 

Oct. 

11 

Dussera 

Oct. 

7 

Oct. 

26 

Oct.  14 

Oct. 

3 

Oct. 

21 

Dhan-Teras 

Oct.  24 

Nov. 

11 

Oct.  31 

Oct. 

21 

Nov. 

9 

Kali  Caudas 

Oct.  25 

Nov. 

13 

Nov.  1 

Oct. 

22 

Nov. 

10 

Diwali 

Oct. 

26 

Nov. 

14 

Nov.  2 

Oct. 

22 

Nov. 

10 

Mahasivaratri 

Feb.  20 

Mar.  10, 
1956 

Feb.  27 

Feb. 

16 

Mar.  7, 
1959 

Holi,  1st  day 

Mar.  8, 
1955 

Mar.  26, 

1956 

Mar.  15, 

1957 

Mar. 

1958 

5, 

Holi;  2nd  day 

Mar—  9, 
1955 

Mar.  27, 

1956 

Mar.  16, 

1957 

Mar. 

1958 

6, 

Good  Friday 

Apr.  16 

Apr. 

8 

Mar.  30 

Apr. 

19 

Apr. 

4 

Christmas  Day 

Dec.  25 

Dec. 

25 

Dec.  25 

Dec. 

25 

Dec. 

25 

Id-ul-Fitr 

June 

3 

May 

24 

May 

12 

May 

2 

Apr. 

21 

Id-uz-Zuha 

Aug. 

10 

July 

30 

July 

19 

July 

9 

June 

28 

MuHarram 

Sep. 

9 

Aug. 

29 

Aug. 

18 

Aug. 

7 

July 

28 

Id-e-Milad 

Nov. 

9 

Oct. 

29 

Oct. 

17 

Oct. 

7 

Sep. 

26 

*  Proposed  all-India  holiday. 


352  REPORT  OF  THE'  CALENDAR  RlFORM  COMMITTEE 

List  of  Holidays  for  differeht  States — contd. 
(25)  MANIPUR  HOLIDAYS 


Festivals  Dales  of  Festivals 


1954-55 

1955-56 

1956-57 

1957-58 

1958 

-59 

Saka 

1876 

Saka 

,  1877 

t^aka 

1878 

$aka 

1879 

Saka  1880 

Indian  New  Year’s  Day* 

Mar. 

22 

Mar. 

22 

Mar. 

21 

Mar. 

22 

Mar. 

22 

Cheiraoba 

Apr. 

13 

Apr. 

14 

Apr. 

13 

Apr. 

13 

Apr. 

13 

Independence  Day 

Aug. 

15 

Aug. 

15 

Aug. 

15 

Aug. 

15 

Aug. 

15 

Mahatma  Gandhi’s  Birthday 

Oct. 

2 

Oct. 

2 

Oct. 

2 

Oct. 

2 

Oct. 

2 

English  New  Year’s  Day 

Jan. 

1 

Jan. 

1 

Jan. 

1 

Jan. 

1 

Jan. 

1 

Makaradi 

Jan. 

14 

Jan. 

14 

Jan. 

13 

Jan. 

14 

Jan. 

14 

Republic  Day 

Jan. 

26 

Jan. 

26 

Jan. 

26 

Jan. 

26 

Jan. 

26 

Mahaviguva  Day* 

Mar. 

21, 

Mar. 

20, 

Mar. 

21, 

Mar. 

21. 

Mar. 

21, 

> 

1955 

1956 

1957 

1958 

1959 

Vijay  Govindaji  Halenkar 

Mar. 

24, 

_ 

Mar. 

31, 

Mar. 

10. 

1954 

1956 

1958 

Mar. 

13, 

Mar. 

20, 

1955 

1957 

Varupi 

Apr. 

1 

Mar. 

22, 

Apr. 

8 

Mar. 

29, 

1955 

1957 

Mar. 

18, 

1958 

Akgaya  Tftlya 

May 

5 

Apr. 

25 

May 

13 

May 

2 

Apr. 

22 

Rathayatra 

July 

2 

June 

21 

July 

9 

June 

29 

June 

19 

Punaryatra 

July 

10 

June 

29 

July 

17 

July 

7 

June 

27 

JhulanayatrS 

Aug. 

10 

July 

30 

Aug. 

17 

Aug. 

6 

Aug. 

25 

Janmastami 

Aug. 

21 

Aug. 

11 

Aug. 

29 

Aug. 

19 

Sep. 

6 

Radhas^aml 

Sep. 

5 

Sep. 

24 

Sep. 

12 

Sep. 

1 

Sep. 

20 

Heikra  Hitomba 

Sep. 

9 

Sep. 

27 

Sep. 

15 

Sep. 

4 

Sep. 

23 

Tarpana  Layba 

Sep. 

26 

Oct. 

15 

Oct. 

4 

Sep. 

23 

Oct. 

12 

Durga  Paja 

Oct. 

4-7 

Oct. 

23-26 

Oct. 

11-14 

Sep.  30-Oct.3 

Oct. 

19-22 

LaksmI  Purijima 

Oct. 

11 

.  Oct. 

30 

Oct. 

19 

Oct. 

8 

Oct. 

27 

Diwali  (Dipanvita) 

Oct. 

26 

Nov. 

14 

Nov. 

2 

Oct. 

22 

Nov. 

10 

Govardhana  Puja 

Oct. 

27 

Nov. 

15 

Nov. 

3 

Oct. 

23 

Nov. 

11 

Bhraty  Dvitiya 

Oct. 

28 

Nov. 

16 

Nov. 

4 

Oct. 

24 

Nov. 

12 

GosthagtamI 

y 

Nov. 

4 

Nov. 

23 

Nov. 

11  . 

Oct. 

30 

Nov. 

18 

Sri  Pancami 

Jan. 

28 

Feb. 

16 

Feb. 

5 

Jan. 

25 

Feb. 

12 

Mahasivaratri 

Feb. 

20 

Mar. 

10, 

Feb. 

27 

Feb. 

16 

Mar. 

7, 

Dolayatra 

1956 

1959 

Mar. 

8, 

— 

Mar. 

26, 

Mar. 

5. 

1955 

1956 

1958 

Mar. 

16, 

1957 

Good  Friday 

Apr. 

16 

Apr. 

8 

Mar. 

30 

Apr. 

19 

Apr. 

4 

Christmas  Day 

Dep. 

25 

Dec. 

25 

Dec. 

25 

Dee. 

25 

Dec- 

25 

Id-ul-Fitr 

June 

3 

May 

24 

May 

12 

May 

2 

Apr. 

21 

Id-uz-Zuha 

Aug. 

10 

July 

30 

July 

19 

July 

9 

June 

28 

Muharram 

Sep. 

9 

Aug. 

29 

Aug. 

18 

Aug. 

7 

July 

28 

Id-e-Milad 

Nov. 

9 

Oct. 

29 

Oot- 

17 

Oct- 

7 

Sep. 

26 

♦ 


Proposed  all-India  holiday. 


LIST  OF  HOLXE^yS  130 


List  of  Holdiays  for  different  States— corttd. 

(26)  TRIPURA  HOLIDAY 

Festivals  Dates  of  Festivals 


1954 

-55 

1955-56 

1956-57 

1957-68 

1958- 

59 

Saka  1876 

Saka  1877 

Saka 

1878 

$aka 

1879 

i$aka  1880 

Indian  New  Year’s  Day* 

Mar. 

22 

Mar. 

22 

Mai. 

21 

Mar. 

22 

Mar. 

22 

Hefja  Samkranti 

Apr. 

13 

Apr. 

14 

Apr. 

13 

Apr. 

13 

Apr. 

13 

Independence  Day 

Aug. 

15 

Aug. 

15 

Aug. 

15 

Aug. 

15 

Aug. 

15 

Mahatma  Gandhi’s  Birthday 

Oct. 

2 

Oct. 

2 

Oct. 

a 

Oct. 

2 

Oct. 

2 

English  New  Year’s  Day 

Jan. 

1 

Jan. 

1 

Jan. 

i 

Jan. 

1 

Jan. 

1 

Republic  Day 

Jan. 

26 

Jan. 

26 

Jan. 

26 

Jan. 

26 

Jan. 

26 

Mahavi(?uva  Day* 

Mar. 

21, 

Mar. 

20, 

Mar. 

21, 

Mar. 

21, 

Mar. 

21 

1955 

1956 

1957 

1958 

1959 

Kharci  Puja 

July 

8 

June 

27 

July  15 

July 

4 

June 

24 

Ker  Puja 

July 

24 

July 

12 

July  31 

July 

20 

July 

8 

Janma^ami 

Aug. 

21 

Aug. 

11 

Aug.  29 

Aug. 

19 

Sep. 

6 

Mahalaya  Amavasya 

Sep. 

26 

Oct. 

15 

Oct. 

3 

Sep. 

23 

Oct. 

12 

Durga  Puja 

Oct. 

4-7 

Oct. 

23-26 

Oct. 

11-14 

Sep.  30-Oct.  3 

Oct.  19-22 

Lakgml  POja 

Oct. 

11 

Oct. 

30 

Oct. 

19 

Oct. 

8 

27 

Kali  Puja 

Oct. 

25 

Nov. 

13 

Nov. 

1 

Oct. 

22 

Nov. 

10 

Jagaddhatri  Puja 

Nov. 

5 

Nov. 

24 

Nov.  12 

Oct. 

31 

Nov. 

19 

$ri  Pancaim 

Dolayatra 

Jan. 

Mar. 

1955 

28 

8, 

» 

Feb. 

16 

Feb.  5 

Mar.  26, 

1956 

Mar.  16, 

1957 

Jan.  25 

Mar.  5, 

1958 

Feb. 

19 

Good  Friday 

Apr. 

16 

Apr. 

8 

Mar. 

30 

Apr. 

19 

Apr. 

4 

Easter  Saturday 

Apr. 

17 

Apr. 

9 

Mar. 

31 

Apr. 

20 

Apr. 

5 

Christmas  Day 

Dec. 

25 

Dec. 

25 

Dec. 

25 

Dec. 

25 

Dec. 

25 

Id-ul-Fitr 

June. 

3 

May 

24 

May 

12 

May 

2 

Apr. 

21 

Id-uz-Zuha 

Aug. 

10 

July 

30 

July 

19 

July 

9 

June 

28 

Muharram 

Sep. 

9 

Aug. 

2® 

Aug. 

18 

Aug. 

7 

July 

28 

* 


Proposed  all-India  holiday. 


154  REPORT  OP  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


List  of  Holidays  for  different  States — concluded. 
(27)  VINDHYA  PRADESH  HOLIDAYS 


Festivals 

Dates 

of  Pest 

i  v  a  1  s 

1954-55 

1955-56 

1956-57 

1957-58 

1958-59 

Saka  1876 

^aka  1877 

£aka  1878 

^aka  1879 

f^aka  1880 

Indian  New  Year’s  Day* 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  21 

Mar.  22 

Mar.  22 

Independence  Day 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  15 

Aug,  15 

Mahatma  Gandhi’s  Birthday 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

Oct.  2 

English  New  Year’s  Day 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  1 

Makaradi 

Jan.  14 

Jan.  14 

Jan.  13 

Jan.  14 

Jan.  14 

Republic  Day 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Jan.  26 

Mabaviijuva  Day* 

Mar.  21, 

Mar.  20, 

Mar.  21, 

Mar.  21, 

Mar.  21, 

1955 

1956 

1957 

1958 

1959 

Ramanavami 

Apr.  11 

Apr.  1 

Apr.  19 

Apr.  8 

Mar.  29 

Mahavir’s  Birthday 

Apr.  15 

Apr.  5 

Apr.  23 

Apr.  12 

Apr.  2 

Rak?a  Bandhana 

Aug.  14 

Aug.  3 

Aug.  21 

Aug.  10 

Aug.  29 

.Janmaijtami 

Aug.  21 

Aug.  11 

Aug.  29 

Aug.  19 

Sep.  6 

Dussera 

Oct.  4-7 

Oct.  23-26 

Oct.  11-14 

Sep.  30-Oct.  3 

Oct.  19-21 

Diwali 

Oct.  26-27 

Nov.  14-15 

Nov.  2-3 

Oct.  22-23 

Nov.  10-11 

Yama  Dvitiya 

Oct.  28 

Nov.  16 

Nov.  4 

Oct.  24 

Nov.  12 

Deo  Prabodhani  Ekadasi 

Nov.  7 

Nov.  26 

Nov.  14 

Nov.  3 

Nov.  21 

Guru  Nanak’s  Birthday 

Nov.  10 

Nov.  29 

Nov.  18 

Nov.  7  • 

Nov.  26 

Guru  Govinda  Singh’s  Birthday 

Jan.  1 

Jan.  20 

Jan.  8 

Dec.  28 

Jan.  16 

Vasanta  Pancami 

Jan.  28 

Peb.  16 

Feb.  5 

Jan.  24 

Feb.  12 

MahaAtvaratri 

Peb.  20 

Mar.  10, 
1956 

Feb.  27 

Feb.  16 

Mar.  7, 
1959 

Holi,  1st  day 

Mar.  8, 

1955 

Mar.  26, 

1956 

Mar.  15, 

1957 

Mar.  6, 

1958 

Holi,  2nd  day 

Mar.  9, 

1955 

Mar.  27, 

1956 

Mar.  16, 

1957 

Mar.  6, 

1958 

Good  Friday 

Apr.  16 

Apr.  8 

Mar.  30 

Apt.  19 

Apr.  4 

Christmas  Day 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Dec.  25 

Id-ul-Fitr 

June  3 

May  24 

May  12 

May 

2 

Apr.  21 

Id-uz-Zuha 

Aug.  10 

July  30 

July  19 

July 

9 

June  28 

Muharram 

Sep.  9 

Aug.  29 

Aug.  18 

Aug. 

7 

July  28 

Id-e-Milad 

Nov.  9 

Oct.  29 

Oct.  17 

Oct. 

7 

Sep.  26 

Proposed  all-India  holiday. 


REPORT 


OF  THE 

CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 

PART  C 

History  of  the  Calendar  in  different 
Countries  through  the  Ages 


BY 

Prof.  M.  N.  SAHA,  d.  sc.,  f.  r.  s. 

Professor  Emeritus,  University  of  Calcutta, 
Chairman,  Calendar  Reform  Committee, 

AND 


Sri  N.  C.  LAHIRI,  m.  a. 
Secretary,  Calendar  Reform  Committee. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE 


-3500 


-3000 


-2500 


-2000 


-1500 


-1000 


-500 


500 


1000 


1500 


2000 


India 


-INDUS  — 
VALLEY 
CIVILISATION 


VED/C 

PERIOD 


VEDANGA 

CALENDAR 


\ BUDDHA  I 


MAURYA 

BACTRIAN 

GREEK 

SANA 


KUSHAN 


GUPTA 


\Myam*i& 


MEDIEVAL 

DYNASTIES 


\BHASKARA  I 

ISLAMIC 

PERIOD 


\akbar  1 

BRITISH 

PERIOD 


Iran 


ELAM 


Mesopotamia 


SUMER 


AKKAD 


Ur  m 


HAMMURABI] 


KASS/TES 


ASSYRIA 


\nabonassar\ 


Syria 


HYK 


A  C  H 


CHALDEAN 

E  M  E  N  I  D 


~T 

EMPIRE 

I  I 

SELEUCID  EMPIRE 
PARTHIAN  EMPIRE 


5 ASSANID  EMPIRE 


I  CHRISTY- 


/  S  LAM/C  CAL  l  PH  A 


Egypt  Asia  minor  Greece 


S  OTHIC 
CYCLE 


PYRAMIDS 
OLD  KINGDOM 


MIDDLE  KINGDOM, 


SOS 


NEW  KINGDOM] 


PTOLEMAIC 

DYNASTY 


HirriTEs 


EMPIRE  OF 

\PTOLEMAIOS\ 


CRETE 


HOMERIC 

GREEKS 


GREEK 

ALPHABET 

OLYMPIC 

ERA 


GREEK 
CITY  STATES 


\alexaNder\ 


IHIPPARCHUS] 


ROM 


\T£ 


BYZANTINE  EMPIRE 


ITALY  A 
EUROPE 


FOUNDATION] 
OF  ROME 

■ITALIAN 
C/TY  STATES 


\CAESAR  1 


END  OF  ROMAN 


EMPIRE 

DARK 

AGE 


RENAISSANCE 


COPERNICUS] 


\GREGORY  Tin  I 

Hggj 

INDUSTRIAL 

REVOLUTION 


-3500 


-3000 


-2500 


-2000 


-1500 


-1000 


-500 


0 


500 


1000 


1500 


2000 


CHAPTER  I 


General  Principles  of  Calendar  Making 


1.1  INTRODUCTION 

The  Flux  of  Time,  of  which  we  are  all  conscious,  is 
apparently  without  beginning  or  end,  but  it  is  cut  up 
periodically  by  several  natural  phenomena,  vix.  : — 

(1)  by  the  ever-recurring  alternation  of  daylight 
and  night, 

(2)  by  the  recurrence  of  the  moon’s  phases, 

(3)  by  the  recurrence  of  seasons. 

It  is  these  recurring  phenomena  which  are  used  to 
measure  time. 

These  phenomena  have  the  greatest  importance  for 
man,  for  they  determine  all  human  and  animal  life. 
Even  prehistoric  men  could  not  help  noticing  these 
time-periods,  and  their  effect  on  life. 

When  human  communities  started  organized  social 
life  in  the  valleys  of  the  Indus  and  the  Ganges  (India), 
the'  Nile  (Egypt),  the  Tigris  and  the  Euphrates 
(Mesopotamia)  and  the  Hoang  Ho  (China),  several 
millenia  before  Christ  ( vide  Chronological  Table),  these 
phenomena  acquired  new  importance.  For  these  early 
societies  were  founded  on  agriculture  ;  and  agricultural 
practices  depend  on  seasonal  weather  conditions. 
With  these  practices,  therefore,  grew  national  and 
religious  festivals,  necessary  for  the  growth  of  social 
life,  and  of  civilization.  People  wanted  to  know  in 
advance  when  to  expect  the  new  moon  or  the  full  moon, 
when  most  of  the  ancient  festivals  were  celebrated  ; 
when  to  expect  the  onset  of  the  winter  or  the 
monsoon  ;  when  to  prepare  the  ground  for  sowing  ; 
the  proper  time  for  sowing  and  for  harvesting. 
Calendars  are  nothing  but  predictions  of  these  events, 
and  were  early  framed  on  the  basis  of  past  experiences. 

1.2  THE  NATURAL  PERIODS  OF  TIME 

The  three  events  mentioned  in  (1),  (2)  and  (3)  above 
define  the  natural  divisions  of  time.  They  are  : 

The  Day  :  defined  by  the  alternation  of  daylight 
and  night. 

The  Month  :  the  complete  cycle  of  moon’s  changes 
of  phase,  from  end  of  mew-moon  to  next  end  of  new- 
moon  (amenta  months),  or  end  of  full-moon  to  end 
of  next  full-moon  {purijkirn&nta  months). 

The  Year  :  and  its  smaller  subdivisions,  vix.,  the 
seasons. 


The  Day*  : 

The  day,  being  the  smallest  unit,  has  been  taken  as 
the  fundamental  unit  of  time  and  the  lengths  of  months, 
the  year  and  the  seasons  are  expressed  in  terms  of  the 
day  as  the  unit. 

But  the  day  is  to  be  defined .  Many  early  riations 
defined  the  day  as  the  time-period  between  sunrise 
to  sunrise  ( savana  day  in  India)  or  sunset  to  sunset 
(Babylonians  and  Jews).  But  the  length  of  the  day, 
so  defined,  when  measured  with  even  the  rough 
chronometers  of  early  days,  was  found  to  be  variable. 
This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  except  at  the  equator,  the 
sun  does  not  rise  or  set  at  the  same  time  in  different 
seasons  of  the  year.  So  gradually  the  practice  arose 
of  defining  the  day  as  the  period  from  midnight  to 
midnight,  i.  e.,  when  the  sun  is  at  the  nadir  to  its  next 
passage  through  the  nadir.  Even  then  the  length  of 
the  day  is  found  to  be  variable  when  measured  by  an 
accurate  chronometer.  The  reasons  are  set  forth  in  all 
astronomical  text  books.  Then  came  the  idea  of  the 
mean  solar  day,  and  it  is  now  taken  as  the  funda¬ 
mental  unit  of  time.  The  mean  solar  day  is  the 
average  interval  between  the  two  successive  passages 
of  the  sun  over  the  meridian  of  a  place  derived  from  a 
very  large  number  of  observations  of  such  meridian 
passages.  The  time  between  two  passages  is  measured 
by  an  accurate  chronometer. 

In  addition  to  the  solar  day,  the  astronomers  define 
also  a  sidereal  day,  which  is  the  time  period  between 
two  successive  transits  of  a  fixed  star.  It  measures 
the  time  of  rotation  of  the  earth  round  its  axis.t 

The  solar  day  is  larger  than  the  sidereal  day, 
because  by  the  time  the  earth  completes  a  rotation 
about  its  axis,  the  sun  slips  nearly  a  degree  to  the  east, 
due  to  the  motion  of  the  earth  in  its  orbit,  and  it 
takes  a  little  more  time  for  the  sun  to  come  to  the 


*  Day  here  means  ‘Day  and  Night’.  In  ancient  times,  the 
duration  of  day-light  from  sunrise  to  sunset,  and  of  the  night  from 
sunset  to  sunrise,  were  measured  separately  with  the  aid  of  water- 
clocks.  It  was  comparatively  late  that  the  length  of  the  Day,  meaning 
day-light  and  night,  was  measured.  It  was  distinguished  by  the  term 
ahoratra  in  Sanskrit,  alma  meaning  daylight  time,  and  rain  meaning 
night  time.  In  Greece,  this  was  known  as  Nychthemeron. 

t  Actually  speaking,  the  sidereal  day  is  defined  in  astronomy  as 
the  period  between  two  successive  meridian  passages  of  the  First 
point  of  Aries.  As  this  point  has  a  slow  westward  motion  among 
the  fixed  stars,  the  duration  of  the  so  called  sidereal  day  is  very 
slightly  less  than  the  actual  sidereal  day  or  the  period  of  rotation  of 
the  earth. 


158 


REPORT  OF  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


meridian  of  the  place.  We  have  the  relation  : 

365 i  mean  solar  days  =  366*  sidereal  days. 

Rotation  of  the  earth  =23h  56m  49.100  mean  solar  time. 
Sidereal  day  =23  56  4. 091  ,,  „  „ 

Mean  solar  day  =24  3  56.  555  sidereal  time 

The  actual  sidereal  day,  which  measures  the  period 
of  rotation  of  the  earth  is  generally  taken  to  be  cons¬ 
tant.  The  variable  part  of  the  solar  day  comes  from 
two  factors  : 

(1)  Obliquity  of  the  sun’s  path  to  the  equator, 
and 

(2)  Unequal  motion  of  the  sun  in  different  parts 
•of  the  year. 

(See  H.  Spencer  Jones,  General  Astronomy  p.  45). 
It  has  however  been  recently  found  that  even  the 
period  of  rotation  of  the  earth  is  not  constant  but 
fluctuates  both  regularly  and  irregularly  by  amounts 
of  the  order  of  10* 8  seconds. 

The  Month  : 

The  month  is  essentially  a  lunar  phenomenon,  and 
is  the  time-period  from  completion  of  new  moon 
■(conjunction  of  moon  with  the  sun)  to  the  next  new 
moon.  But  the  length  of  the  month  so  defined  varies 
from  29.246  to  29.817  days,  owing  to  the  eccentricity 
of  the  moon’s  orbit  and  other  causes.  The  month  or 
lunation  used  in  astronomy  is  the  mean  synodic 
period,  which  is  the  number  of  days  comprised  within 
a  large  number  of  lunations  divided  by  the  number  of 
lunations.  Its  value  is  given  by 

1  lunation = 29.d53Q5882 — 0.d0000002  T 
where  T =no.  of  centuries  after  1900  A.D. 

The  present  duration  of  a  lunation  *  29’5305881 
-days  or  29a  12h  44ra  2.88.  There  are  other  kinds  of 
months  derived  from  the  moon  and  the  sun  which 
will  be  discussed  later. 

The  Year  and  the  Seasons  : 

The  year  is  the  period  taken  by  the  seasonal 
characteristics  to  recur.  The  early  people  had  but  a 
vague  notion  of  the  length  of  the  year  in  terms  of 
the  day.  In  the  earliest  mythology  of  most  nations, 
the  year  was  taken  to  have  comprised  360  days,  consis¬ 
ting  of  12  months  each  of  30  days.  They  apparently 
thought  that  the  moon’s  phases  rfecur  at  intervals  of 
30  days. 

But  experience  soon  showed  that  these  measures 
of  the  month  and  the  year  were  wrong,  but  they  have 
left  their  stamp  on  history.  The  sexagesimal  measure 
used  in  astronomy  and  trigonometry,  as  well  as  fanci¬ 
ful  cycles  of  life  of  the  Universe,  invented  by  ancient 
nations,  appear  to  have  been  inspired  by  these 
numbers. 


It  appears  that  the  Egyptians  found  very  early 
(as  related  in  the  next  section)  from  the  recurrence 
of  the  Nile  floods  that  the  year  had  a  length  of  365 
days.  Later  they  found  the  true  length  to  be  nearer 
365.25  days. 

The  ancient  Babylonians,  or  Chaldeans  as  they 
were  called  from  about  600  B.C.,  appear  to  have  been 
the  earliest  people  who  tried  to  obtain  correct 
measures  of  the  time-periods  :  the  month,  the  year, 
and  the  seasons  in  terms  of  the  day,  and  its  subdivi¬ 
sions.  Their  determinations  were  transmitted  to 
the  Greeks  who  refined  both  the  notions  and  measure¬ 
ments  very  greatly.  This  story  will  be  told  in 
Chapter  II. 

At  present  it  is  known  that  the  length  of  the 
seasonal  year  (tropical  year)  is  given  by  : — 

Tropical  year  =  365 -24219879— ’0T614  (t— 1900)  days, 
where  t= Gregorian  year. 

The  present  duration  of  a  tropical  year  is 
365-2421955  days  or  365a  5h  48m  45's7. 

The  Sidereal  Year  : 

In  some  countries,  the  ancients  took  the  year  to 
be  the  period  when  the  sun  returned  to  the  same 
point  in  its  path  (the  ecliptic).  This  is  the  time  of 
revolution  of  the  earth  in  its  orbit  round  the  sun. 
The  tropical  year,  or  the  year  of  seasons,  is  the  time 
of  passage  of  the  sun  from  one  vernal  equinox 
to  the  next  vernal  equinox.  The  two  years  would 
have  been  the  same,  if  the  vernal  equinoctial  point 
(hereafter  called  the  vernal  point)  were  fixed.  But 
as  narrated  in  Chapter  IV,  it  recedes  to  the  west  at 
the  rate  of  50"  per  year.  The  tropical  year  is  there¬ 
fore  less  than  the  sidereal  year  by  the  time  taken  by 
the  sun  to  traverse  50",  i.e.,  by  .014167  days  or 
20m  24s. 

For  calendarical  purpose,  it  is  unmeaning  to  use 
the  sidereal  year  (365d.256362),  as  then  the  dates 
would  not  correspond  to  seasons.  The  use  of  the 
tropical  year  is  enjoined  by  the  Hindu  astronomical 
treatises  like  the  Surya  Siddhanta  and  the  Paftca 
Siddhantika.  But  these  passages  have  been  misunder¬ 
stood,  and  Indian  calendar  makers  have  been  using 
the  sidereal  year  with  a  somewhat  wrong  length 
since  the  fifth  century  A.D. 

1.3  THE  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  CALENDAR 

Whatever  may  be  the  correct  lengths  of  the  astro¬ 
nomical  month  and  the  year,  for  application  to  human 
life,  the  following  points  have  to  be  observed  in 
framing  a  civil  calendar. 

(a)  The  civil  year  and  the  month  must  have  an 
integral  number  of  days. 


159 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  CALENDAR  MAKING 


(b)  The  starting  day  of  the  year,  and  of  the  month 
should  be  suitably  defined.  The  dates  must  correspond 
strictly  to  seasons, 

(c)  For  purposes  of  continuous  dating,  an  era 
should  be  used,  and  it  should  be  properly  defined. 

(d)  The  civil  day,  as  distinguished  from  the 
astronomical  day,  should  be  defined  for  use  in  the 
calendar. 

(e)  If  the  lunar  months  have  to  be  kept,  there 
should  be  convenient  devices  for  luni-solar  adjustment. 

A  correct  and  satisfactory  solution  of  these  pro¬ 
blems  has  not  yet  been  obtained,  though  in  the  form 
of  hundreds  of  calendars  which  have  been  used  by 
different  people  of  the  world  during  historical  times, 
we  have  so  many  attempted  solutions.  The  early 
calendars  were  based  on  insufficient  knowledge  of  the 
duration  of  the  natural  time  cycles — day,  month  and 
year — and  led  to  gross  deviations  from  actual  facts, 
which  had  to  be  rectified  from  time  to  time  by  the 
intervention  of  dictators  like  Julius  Caesar,  Pope 
Gregory  XIII,  or  a  founder  of  religion  like  Mohammed, 
or  by  great  monarchs  like  Melik  Shah  the  Seljuk,  or 
Akber,  the  great  Indian  emperor. 

Owing  to  the  historical  order  of  development, 
•calendars  have  been  used  for  the  double  purpose  : 

(i)  of  the  adjustment  of  the  civic  and  adminis¬ 
trative  life  of  the  nation, 

(ii)  of  the  regulation  of  socio-religious  life  of  the 
people. 

In  ancient  and  medieval  times,  society,  state  and 
church  were  intermingled,  and  the  same  calendar 
served  all  purposes.  The  modern  tendency  is  to 
dissociate  civic  life  and  administration  from  gocio- 
religious  life.  Also  due  to  the  enormous  growth  of 
intercourse  amongst  all  nations  of  the  world,  the  v  need 
has  been  felt  for  a  World  Calendar  dissociated  from 
all  religious  and  social  bias.  Owing  to  historical 
reasons,  the  Gregorian  calendar  is  now  used  inter¬ 
nationally  for  civic  and  administrative  purposes,  but 
it  is  very  inconvenient,  and  proposals  have  been  made 
to  the  U.  N.  O.  for  the  adoption  of  a  simple  World 
Calendar  ( vide  §  2.7). 


1.4  SUBDIVISIONS  OF  THE  DAY 

For  pactical  prurposes,  the  day  is  divided  into  24 
hours,  an  hour  into  sixty,  minutes  and  a  minute  into 
sixty  seconds. 

.'.  1  mean  solar  day  =  24  x  60  x  60  =  86,400  seconds. 

The-  subdivisions  of  time  are  measured  by  highly 
developed  mechanical  contrivances  (clocks,  watches 
and  chronometers),  but  they  have  come  into  use  only 


during  comparatively  recent  times.  The  ancient  people 
used  very  primitive  devices. 

The  time-keeping  apparatus  of  the  ancients  were 
the  gnomon,  the  sundial,  and  the  water-clock  or  the 
clepsydra.  The  first  two  depend  on  the  motion  of  the 
sun,  and  require  correction.  The  water-clock  which 
probably  was  first  invented,  in  Egypt,  appears  to  have 
been  used  down  to  the  time  of  Galileo,  when  the 
discovery  of  pendulum  motion  led  to  the  invention  of 
clocks  based  on  pendulum  motion  or  use  of  the  balance 
wheel. 

Subdivisions  of  time  can  be  measured  by  the  motion 
of  any  substance,  which  repeats  itself  regularly  ;  at  the 
present  time  in  addition  to  pendulum  clocks,  quartz- 
clocks,  and  ammonia  clocks  have  been  used.  The 
latter  depend  upon  harmonic  motions  within  the 
ammonium  molecule,  giving  rise  to  spectral  lines  whose 
frequency  can  be  accurately  measured. 

The  present  divisions  of  the  solar  day  have 
interesting  history. 

It  is  stated  by  Sarton  that  the  ancient  Sumerians 
(original  dwellers  of  Babylon)  divided  the  day-time  and 
night-time  into  three  watches  each.  The  watches 
were  naturally  of  unequal  lengths  and  varied  through¬ 
out  the  year.  It  was  only  during  equinoxes  that  the 
watches  were  of  equal  length,  each  of  our  4  hours. 

These  unequal  watches  continued  down  to  medieval 
times.  The  life  of  a  medieval  monk  was  watch-wise  as 
follows. 

(1)  Matins — last  watch  of  the  night.  The  monk 

got  up  nearly  two  hours  before  sun¬ 
rise  and  started  his  work, 

(2)  Prima — at  sunrise, 

(3)  Tertia — half-way  between  sunrise  and  noon — 

time  of  saying  Mass, 

(4)  Sexta — at  noon  (hence  the  word.  Siesta — 

midday  rest), 

(5)  Nona — mid-afternoon,  whence  our  word  Noon, 

(6)  V espers — an  hour  before  sunset, 

(7)  Compline — at  sunset. 

The  watches  were  variable  in  duration  and  in  their 
starting  moments.  Sarton  remaks  : 

A  clock  regularly  running  and  dividing  the  day  into 
periods  of  equal  duration  would  have  been,  at  first,  more 
disturbing  than  useful.  For  monastic  purposes,  a  human 
variable  clock  ( e .  g.  a  bell  rung  by  a  monk  or  lay  brother 
at  the  needed  irregular  intervals)  was  more  practical  than 
an  automatic  one.* 

But  even  in  ancient  times,  the  need  for  measure¬ 
ment  of  equal  intervals  of  time  was  felt.  The  ancient 
'Babylonians  used  the  Nychthemeron  (Day  and  Night 

♦Sarton,  Introduction  to  the  History  of  Science,  Vol.  Ill,  Parti, 
p.  716. 


160 


REPORT  OP  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


combined  =  Ahoratra)  into  12  hours  of  30  Oesh  each, 
Qesh  being =4  minutes.  The  Egyptians  divided  the  day¬ 
light  time  into  12  hours,  and  the  night  into  12  hours. 
Later  in  medieval  times,  the  24-hour  division  for  the 
whole  day  (day  and  night)  has  been  adopted.  The 
division  into  A.M.  and  P.M.  were  for  the  sake  of 
convenience,  so  that  the  maximum  number  of  times  a 
bell  has  to  be  rung,  on  the  completion  of  an  hour, 
would  not  exceed  12,  for  apparently  ringing  a  bell  24 
times  would  be  a  torture  of  the  flesh. 

The  broad  divisions  of  the  day  were  secured  by  the 
Hindus  in  two  ways.  They  divided  the  day-time  (from 
sunrise  to  sunset)  into  4  equal  parts  each  called  a 
prahara  or  yama.  The  night  time  was  also  similarly 
divided  into  4  equal  praharas.  The  prahara  is  so 
popular  a  unit  in  Indian  time  measurement  that  even 
the  lay  man  expresses  time  in  terms  of  praharas  and 
half  praharas.  An  alternative  system  of  division  of  the 
time  is  the  ‘ muhurta ’  obtained  by  dividing  the  daytime 
into  15  muhurtas  determined  by  gnomon  shadow 
lengths.  The  day  muhurtas  were  measured  from 
lengths  of  shadows  of  the  gnomon.  The  night  muhurtas 
are  similarly  the  fifteenth  part  of  the  night  time. 

As  the  durations  of  day  and  night  are  not  equal 
except  on  the  vernal  and  autumnal  equinox  days,  the 
prahara  and  muhurta  of  the  day-time  have  not  the 
same  durations  as  those  of  their  nocturnal  counterparts. 
On  equinox  days,  they  are  however  equal,  when 

1  Prahara  =3b  0m  =  7«h  30v 
1  Muhurta  =0  48  =2  0 

The  Hindu  astronomers  appear  to  have  switched  on 
to  the  ahoratra  during  Vedanga  Jyotisa  times.  As  it  is 
rather  complicated,  we  do  not  give  an  account  of  it. 
The  reader  may  consult  Dixit’s  Bharatiya  Jyotisastra. 
But  in  Siddhanta  Jyoti$a,  they  had  a  full-fledged 
scientific  system. 

The  scientific  divisions  of  time  followed  by  the 
Siddhantas  are  the  ghatika  {danda  or  nadi),  prahara  or 
yama ,  and  muhurta  etc.  The  day  is  measured  from 
sunrise  and  the  period  from  sunrise  to  next  sunrise  is 
divided  into  60  equal  ‘ ghatikas ’  or  dandas  ;  each  gha\i 
is  subdivided  into  60  vigha\is  or  palas ,  and  each  vighati 
or  pala  into  60  vipalas.  So  a  day  consists  of  60  • gha\is 
or  3600  palas  or  216000  vipalas.  Thus 

1  gha{ika  =24m  0.0 
1  pala  —  0  24.0 

1  vipala  =  0  0.4 

The  pala  or  vighati  is  sometimes  subdivided  into  6 
divisions  called  a  'pratin' .  A  prana  is  therefore  equi¬ 
valent  to  4  secs,  of  time.  There  are  360  praym  in  a 
ghatika  and  the  day  contains  360  X  60  or  21600  pranas, 


the  same  as  the  number  of  minutes  (  kola  or  liptikd)  in 
a  circle.  In  Siddhantas  (astronomical  treatises  of  the 
Hindus)  there  are  conceptions  with  nomenclatures  of 
still  smaller  divisions  of  time,  but  they  had  no  practi¬ 
cal  utility. 

None  of  the  time-periods  of  the  sun,  and  the  moon, 
vix.,  the  year  and  the  season,  and  the  lunations  and 
half- lunations  are  integral  multiples  of  the  day  ;  on  the 
other  hand,  the  figures  run  to  several  places  of 
decimals.  How  did  the  ancients,  who  quickly  dis¬ 
covered  that  the  time-periods  were  not  integral  multi¬ 
ples  of  the  day,  express  their  findings  ? 

It  will  take  us  a  long  dive  into  the  history  of 
mathematical  notation  to  elucidate  this  story.  The 
curious  reader  may  consult  Neugebauer’s  Exact  Sciences 
in  Antiquity  or  van  der  Waer den’s  Science  Awakening 
(pp.51-61).  In  fact,  the  symbolism  was  very  cumbrous 
before  the  discovery  of  the  decimal  notation  about 
600  A.D.  in  India,  where  it  quickly  replaced  the  old 
cumbrous  notation.  The  discovery  was  quickly  adopted 
by  the  Arabs  for  certain  purposes,  but  was  first  made 
known  to  Europe  by  Leonardo  of  Pisa  in  a  treatise  on 
Arithmetic  published  in  1202  A.D.,  but  a  few  more 
centuries  passed  before  it  was  universally  adopted. 

The  practice  of  expressing  fractions  by  means  of 
decimals  came  later,  both  in  India  and  Europe.  In 
India,  an  astronomer  who  wrote  an  astronomical 
treatise  called  'BhasvatV  in  1099  A.  D.  was  called 
Satananda,  (i.e.,  revelling  in  hundreds)  because  he 
used  to  write  fractions  in  hundredths  i.e.  1  as  25 
hundredths,  f  as  75  hundredths.  In  Europe,  the 
expression  of  fractions  by  decimals  came  into  vogue 
about  the  seventeenth  century. 

The  Hindu  astronomer  of  the  Siddhantic  age 
expressed  the  periods  of  the  sun,  the  moon  and  the 
planets  by  the  number  of  their  periods  in  a  Mahdyuga 
(4.32  x  10®  years).  The  number  is  usually  integral. 

But  how  did  this  cumbrous  system  originate  ? 

Probably  many  of  these  values  were  obtained  by 
counting  the  number  of  days  between  a  large  number 
of  periods  and  dividing  them  by  the  number  of  periods. 
For  example,  take  the  case  of  the  length  of  the  mean 
lunation  (lunar  month).  All  ancient  nations  give 
this  length  correct  to  a  large  number  of  decimals.  This 
must  have  been  obtained  by  counting  the  number  of 
days  between  two  new  moons,  separated  by  a,  large 
number  of  years,  and  dividing  it  by  the  number  of 
lunations  contained  in  the  interval.  Of  course,  the 
utmost  they  could  have  done  was  to  keep  records  for 
at  most  a  hundred  years,  but  the  rule  of  three  was 
always  available. 

In  the  following  sections,  the  different  ways  of 
tackling  the  calendar  problem  in  different  centres  of 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OP  CALENDAR  MAKING 


161 


civilization  have  been  described.  We  have  described 
in  Chap.  II,  the  purely  solar  calendars, ,  in  which  the 
moon  is  altogether  discarded  as  a  time-marker.  This 
practice  originated  in  Egypt  about  3000  B.C.  These 
calendars  require  only  a  correct  knowledge  of  the 
length  of  year,  and  are  therefore  comparatively  simpler. 
They  required  very  little  or  almost  no  knowledge 
of  astronomy. 

We  have  described  in  Chap.  Ill,  the  luni-solar 
calendars,  prevalent  in  ancient  Mesopotamia,  India, 
China  and  most  other  countries.  In  these  calendars, 
both  the  sun  and  the  moon  are  used  as  time-markers, 
and  therefore  precise  knowledge  of  their  motion  in 
the  heavens  was  essential  for  the  formulation  of  a 
correct  calendar.  We  mark  two  stages  ;  first  the 
formulation  of  a  calendar  from  a  knowledge  of  only 
the  length  of  the  year,  and  of  the  mean  lunar 
month.  This  was  an  older  phase.  It  did  not  work 
satisfactorily,  because  it  depended  on  the  mean  motion 
of  the  two  luminaries.  Actually,  the  time-predictions 
have  to  be'  verified  by  actual  comparison  of  the 
predicted  happenings  (say  of  the  vernal  equinox 
day  in  the  case  of  the  sun,  or  the  first  appearance 
of  the  crescent  of  the  moon  after  new  moon  on  the 
western  horizon)  with  the  time  of  actual  happenings. 
This  gave  rise  to  the  need  for  watching  the  daily 
motion  of  the  two  luminaries,  and  invention  of 
methods  for  recording  and  storing  these  observations  ; 
in  other  words,  this  led  to  the  science  of  astronomy. 
Early  astronomy  is  almost  completely  calendarical. 
At  a  later  stage,  the  five  planets  attracted  attention, 
on  account  of  their  association  with  astrology. 

We  have  therefore  devoted  Chap.  IV  to  calendaric 
astronomy,  which  was  evolved  by  the  Chaldeans,  and 
taken  over  from  them  by  the  Greeks,  and  in  time 
diffused  to  other  countries. 

In  Chap.  V,  we  have  described  the  various  stages  of 
the  development  of  the  Indian  calendar  : — the  empiri¬ 
cal  stage  (Rg-Vedic),  the  mean  motion  stage  ( Vedafiga 
Jyoti$a),  and  the  scientific  stage  ( Siddhanta  Jyoti$a). 
From  1200  A.D.,  astronomical  studies  became  decadent 
in  India,  and  we  have  analysed  the  cause  of  decadence. 
We  have  given  a  full  account  of  precession,  as  most 
Indian  calendar  makers  still  believe  in  the  false  theory 
of  Trepidation  which  disappeared  from  Europe  after 
1687  A.  D. 

1.6  AHARGANA  OR  HEAP  OF  DAYS  :  JULIAN  DAYS 

Though  the  Flux  of  Time  is  a  continuous  process, 
it  is  divided  for  the  sake  of  convenience  and  for 
natural  reasons  too,  into  years,  months  and  days. 
The  years  are  mostly  counted  from  the  beginning  of 
an  era,  so  that  if  we  wish  to  date  a  memorable  event, 


say  the  bitthTday  of  George  Washington,  it  can  be- 
seen  from  an  inspection  of  his  birth  register  that  it 
took  place  on  Feb.ll,  of  the  year  1732.  But  this 
practice  by  itself  does  not  enable  a  scientific  chrono- 
logist  to  fix  up  the  event  unambiguously  on  the 
absolute  Scale  of  Time,  unless  the  whole  history  of 
the  particular  method  of  date-recording  is  completely 
and  accurately  known  One  must  know  the  lengths 
of  the  individual  months,  the  leap-year  rules,  and 
the  history  of  calendar  reform.  In  the  particular  case 
mentioned,  though  George  Washington,  according  to 
his  birth  register  is  stated  to  have  been  born  on  Feb. 
11,  1732,  his  birth-day  is  celebrated  on  Feb.  22.  Why  ? 
Because  Feb.  11  was  the  date  according  to  the  Julian 
calendar.  But  in  1752,  England  (America  was  then 
a  colony  of  England)  adopted  the  reformed  Gregorian 
calendar,  and  by  an  Act  of  Parliament,  declared  Sept. 
3  to  be  Sept.14,  a  difference  of  11  days.  Following 
the  Gregorian  calendar,  Washington’s  birth-day  had 
to  be  shifted  to  Feb.  22.  A  scientific  chronologist,  say 
of  China,  would  find  it  difficult  to  locate  Washington’s 
birth-day  unless  he  knew  the  whole  history  of  the 
Gregorian  calendar. 

This  difficulty  is  more  pronounced  when  we 
have  to  deal  a  luni-solar  calendar,  say  that  of  Babylon. 
Many  records  of  lunar  eclipses  occuring  in  Babylon 
were  known  to  the  Alexandrian  astronomer,  Claudius 
Ptolemy,  but  they  were  dated  in  Seleucidean  era,  and 
Babylonian  months,  say  year  179,  10th  of  Nisan.  Now 
the  Babylonian  months  were  lunar,  had  lengths  of  29 
or  30  days,  but  the  year  could  have  lengths  of  353,  354 
383,  384  (  vide  §  3‘3  ).  Therefore  when  two  eclipse 
datings  were  compared,  it  was  impossible  to  calculate 
the  number  of  days  between  them,  unless  the  investi¬ 
gator  had  before  him  a  record  showing  the  lengths  of 
years  and  months  between  the  two  events.  Ptolemy 
expressed  his  datings  according  to  the  Egyptian  calen¬ 
dar,  which  enables  one  to  calculate  the  interval  far 
more  easily.  He  must  have  taken  lot  of  pains  to  carry 
out  the  conversion  from  the  Babylonian  to  Egyptian 
dates. 

How  much  better  it  would  have  been  if  a  great 
genius  at  the  beginning  of  civilization,  say  near  about 
3000  B.C.,  started  with  a  zero  day,  and  started  the 
practice  of  dating  events  by  the  number  of  days 
elapsed  since  this  zero  date,  to  the  date  when  this 
particular  event  took  place.  Such  a  great  genius  did 
not  appear  and  a  confusing  number  of  calendars  came 
into  existence.  The  scientific  chronologist  is  'now 
faced  with  the  reverse  problem  :  Suppose  two  ancient 
or  medieval  events  are  found  dated  according  to  two 
different  calendars.  How  to  reduce  these  dates  to  an 
absolute  chronological  scale  ? 

For  this  pqrposera  medieval  French  scholar,  Joseph 
Scaliger  introduced  in  1582  A.D.,  a  system  known  as 


REPORT  OF  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


162 

‘Julian  Days’  after  his  father,  Julius  Scaliger.  The 
Julian  period  in  years  is 

7980  years  ■  19  x  28  x  15 

19  beiqg  the  length  in  years  of  the  MetQnic  Cycle, 

15  „  „  „  „  „  oi  the  Cycle  of  Indiction, 

and  28  .  „  „  „  „  *  of  the  Solar  Cycle. 

It  was  found  by  calculation  that  these  three  cycles 
started  together  on  Jan.  1,.  4713  B.C.  So  the  Julian 
period  as  well  as  the  Julian  day  numbers  started  from 
that  date..  The  Julian  period  is  intended  to  include  all 
dates  both  in  the  past  and  in  the  future  to  which  refe¬ 
rence  is  likely  to  be  made  and  to  that  extent  it  has  an 
advantage  over  an  era  whose  epoch  lies  within  the 
limits  of  historical  time.  The  years  of  the  Julian 
period  are  seldom  employed  now,  but  the  day  of  the 
Julian  period  is  frequently  used  in  astronomy  and 
"calendaric  tables.  Unlike  the  civil  day,  the  Julian'day 
number  is  completed  at  noon. 

Let  us  give  the  Julian  days  for  a  number  of  world- 
events,  as  given  by  Ginzel,  in  his  Handbuch  der  Mathe- 
matischen  und  Technischen  Chronologie. 


Table  1 — Julian  day  numbers. 


Date 

Julian  day 

Kaliyuga 

...  17  February,  3102  B.C.  . 

..  588,465 

Nabonassar 

...  26  February, 

747  B.C. 

1,448,638 

Philippi 

...  12  November,  324  B.C. 

1,603,398 

Saka  era 

...  15  March, 

78  A.D. 

1,749,621 

Diocletian 

...  29  August, 

284  A.D. 

1,825,030 

Hejira 

...  16  July, 

622  A.D. 

1,948,440 

Jezdegerd 

...  16  June, 

632  A.D. 

1,952,063 

(Persian) 

Burmese  era 

...  21  March, 

638  A.D. 

1,954,167 

Newar  era 

...  20  October, 

879  A.D. 

2,042,405 

Jelali  era 

...  15  March, 

1079  A.D. 

2,115,236 

(Iran) 


It  may  be  mentioned  here  that  the  ideas  underlying 
continuous  reckoning  of  days  occurred  much  earlier  to 
the  celebrated  Indian  astronomer,  Aryabhata  I  (476  — 
525  A.D.),  who  introduced  it  under  the  designation 
AhargaiiM  ’  or  heap  of  days  in  his  celebrated  Arya- 
bha{\ya.  The  idea  of  counting  aharqarM  or  heaps  of 
days  elapsed  from  a  specified  epoch  upto  the  given  date 
dawned  upon  the  Hindu  astronomers  as  a  necessity  for 
calculating  the  position  of  planets  for  that  date.  They 
followed  the  cumbrous  luni-solar  calendar  for  dating 
purposes,  which  was  not  based  upon  any  simple  rules. 
It  contains  months  of  29  or  30  days,  and  occasionally  a 
thirteenth  month,  the  recurrence  of  which  was  deter¬ 
mined  by  elaborate  methods.  The  dates  of  the  months 
are  not  numbered  serially,  but  designated  by  the 
tithi  current  at  sunrise.  It  was  accordingly  found 
almost  impossible  to  work  out  the  mean  positions  of 
planets  on  the  basis  of  the  luni-solar  calendar  alone. 


For  this  purpose  a  continuous  and  uniform  time  scale 
was  necessary,  and  this  was  served  by  the  ahargaija. 

Aryabhata  had  somehow  the  idea  that  the  planets, 
and  the  two  nodes  (which  were  treated  as  planets 
in  Hindu  astronomy)  return  to  the  first  point  of  Aries 
after  every  4.32  x  10®  years,  and  there  was  a  unique 
assemblage  of  planets  at  the  first  point  of  the  Hindu 
sphere  at  some  past  date  which  he  called  the  beginning 
of  Kali  Yuga.  The  date  assigned  to  the  Kali  beginning 
is  now  known  to  be  3102  B.C.,  February  17-18.  The 
common  period  of  revolution  of  planets  of  4.32  X 10* 
years  constitute  a  Mahdyuga  consiting  of 

Satya  yuga  of  1.728x10®  years 

Treta  yuga  of  1.296x10®  * 

Dvapara  yuga  of  0.864  x  10®  ” 

Kali  yuga  of  0.432x10®  ” 

Total  4.32  X 10®  years 

It  may  be  noticed  that 

4.32x10® -12000  x  360 

Aryabhata  gave  tables  showing  the  number  of 
sidereal  revolutions  of  planets  in  the  period  of 
4.32x10®  years.  The  total  number  of  days  in  a, 
Mahayuga  =  1,577,917,800  which  gives  the  length  of  a 
year  =  365.25875  days. 

Brahmagupta  was  evidently  not  satisfied  that 
Aryabhata’s  figures  for  the  periods  of  planets  were 
correct.  He  introduced  a  Kalpa  =  lOOOMahayugas  =. 
4.32  x  10®  years.  The  1 Kalpa ’  was  supposed  to  consti¬ 
tute  a  ‘Day’  of  the  Creator,  Grand-father  Brahma. 
He  gave  the  number  of  sidereal  revolutions  of  the 
planets  in  a  Kalpa,  and  thought  he  had  improved 
Aryabhata’s  figure  for  the  year. 

Brahmagupta’s  year  =  365.25844  days. 

Aryabhata  calculated  'Ahargayri  or  heap  of  days, 
from  the  beginning  of  the  Mah&yuga  as  the  zero-day. 

But  evidently  this  practice  involves  very  large 
numbers,  and  is  inconvenient  to  use.  Therefore  the 
later  astronomers  used  modifications  of  the  system 
by  counting  Ahargatxa  from  other  convenient  epochs, 
within  historical  reach.  The  different  epochs  which 
have  been  used  are  : — 

(1)  The  beginning  of  the  Kali  era  or  3102  B.C. 

(2)  427  £aka  era  or  505  A.D.  as  is  found  in 
Paftcasiddhantika,  of  Varahamihira. 

(3)  587  Saka  era  or  665  A.D.  as  is  found  in  the 
Khay,4akhddyaka  of  Brahmagupta. 

(4)  854  Saka  era  or  932  A.D,  as  is  found  in  the 
Laghumanasa  of  Munjala. 

(5)  961  Saka  era  or  1039  A.D.  in  the  Siddh&nia 
iHekhara  of  Srlpati. 

The  astrondlnical  treatises  of  the  Hindus  have  been 
divided  into  three  categories  according  to  the  initial: 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  CALENDAR  MAKING 


163 


epoch  employed  for  calculation.  In  which  the  calcula¬ 
tions  of  ahargaya  as  well  *as  the  planetary  mean  places 
are  made  from  the  Kalpa,  is  called  a  Siddhanta  ;  when 
the  calculations  start  from  a  Mahayuga  or  Kali* 
beginning  it  is  called  a  Tantra ,  and  when  it  is  done 
from  a  recent  epoch  it  is  called  a  Karay,a.  In  any 
case,  the  mean  places  of  the  planets  with  their  nodes 
and  apsides  are  given  for  the  epoch  of  the  treatise 
from  which  calculations  are  to  be  started,  with  rules 
for  finding  the  ahargana  for  any  later  date.  This 
ahargana  is  then  made  use  of  in  finding  for  that  later 
date  the  positions  of  planets  from  their  given  initial 
positions  and  their  daily  motions,  for. 

The  mean  position  at  any  epoch 
=  the  mean  position  at  the  initial  epoch 
4-  daily  motion  x  ahargaxja. 

Due  to  the  complexity  of  the  Hindu  luni-solar 
calendar,  one  has  to  go  through  complicated  rules  in 
determining  the  ahargana  for  any  particular  day. 
Dr.  Olaf  Schmidt  of  the  Brown  University  and  the 
Institute  of  Advanced  Study,  in  discussing  the  method 
of  computation  of  the  Ahargana  at  length,  has  pointed 
out  that  the  present  Hindu  method  suffers  from  a 


disturbing  discontinuity.  The  curious  reader  may  go- 
through  his  article  published  in  the  Centaurus. 


We,  however,  give  below  the  corresponding  Julian 
day  numbers  and  Kali  ahargana  for  certain  modern 
dates. 


1900,  Jan.  1 
1947,  Aug.  15 
1956,  Mar.  21 


Julian  days 
(elapsed  at 
mean  noon) 


Kali  ahargana 
(elapsed  at 
following  midnight) 


2,415,021 

2,432,413 

2,435,554 


1,826,556 

1,843,948 

1,847,089 


The  difference  between  the  two  numbers  588,465 
represents  the  Julian  day  number  on  the  Kali  epoch, 
as  already  stated. 

The  use  of  ahargana  plays  a  very  important  part  in 
modern  epigraphical  researches  when  the  date  recorded 
in  an  inscription  is  required  to  be  converted  into  the 
corresponding  date  of  the  Julian  calendar.  If  the 
Kali  ahargana  for  the  recorded  date  can  be  determined, 
then  the  problem  of  ascertaining  the  corresponding 
Julian  or  Gregorian  date  becomes  a  very  easy  task. 


CHAPTER  II 
The  Solar  Calendar 


2.1  TIME-RECKONINGS  IN  ANCIENT  EGYPT 

Like  other  nations  of  antiquity  the  early  Egyptians 
had  a  year  of  360  days  divided  into  12  months,  each 
of  30  days  ;  but  they  found  very  early  from  the 
recurrence  of  the  Nile  flood,  that  the  seasonal  year 
consisted  approximately  of  365  days,  and  that  a  month 
or  lunation  (period  from  one  new-moon  to  another) 
was  nearly  29}  days  (real  length  29.531  days).  But 
they  had  already  framed  a  calendar  on  the  30-day 
month,  and  360-day  year,  which  had  received  religious 
sanction.  Hence  arose  the  first  necessity  for  calendar- 
reform  recorded  in  ancient  history.  To  persuade  the 
people  to  agree  to  this  reform  their  priests  invented 
the  following  myth  : 

“The  Earth  god  Seb  and  the  sky  goddess  Nut  had  once 
illicit  union.  The  supreme  god  Ba,  the  Sun,  thereupon 
cursed  the  sky  goddess  Nut  that  the  children  of  the 
union  would  be  born  neither  in  any  year  nor  in  any  month. 
Nut  turned  to  the  god  of  wisdom,  Thoth,  for  counsel.  Thoth 
played  a  game  of  dice  with  the  Moon-goddess,  and  won 
from  her  y^th  part  of  of  her  light  out  of  which  he  made 
five  extra  days.  To  appease  Ba  the  Sun-god,  these  five 
days  were  given  to  him,  and  his  year  gained  by  five  days 
while  the  Moon-goddess’s  year  lost  five  days.  The  extra 
five  days  in  the  solar  year  were  not  attached  to  any  month, 
which  continued  to  have  30  days  as  before  ;  but  these  days 
came  at  the  end  of  the  year,  and  were  celebrated  as  the 
birthdays  of  the  gods  born  of  the  union  of  Seb  and  Nut, 
viz.,  Osiris,  Isis,  Nephthys,  Set  and  Anubis,  five  chief  gods 
of  the  Egyptian  pantheon.”  * 

Let  us  scrutinize  the  implications  of  this  myth. 
This  is  tantamount  to  discarding  the  moon  altogether  as  a 
time-maker,  and  basing  the  calendar  entirely  on  the  sun. 
This  was  a  very  wise  step,  for  as  has  been  found  from 
ancient  times,  the  moon  is  a  very  inconvenient  time- 
marker.  The  Egyptians  maintained  the  old  custom 
of  keeping  months  of  30  days'  duration,  and  12  months 
made  a  year.  But  five  days  ( Epagomenai  in  Greek)  were 
added  to  the  year  at  the  end,  which  were  not  attached 
to  any  month.  They  were  celebrated  as  national 
holidays.  Each  month  of  the  Egyptian  calendar  was 
divided  into  3  weeks,  each  of  10  days  (Decads).  ’ 

The  names  of  the  Egyptian  months  together  with 
the  dates  of  beginning  of  each  month  as  they  stood  in 
22  B.C.,  are  as  follows  : 

*  Zinner  —Qeschichte  der  Sternkunde ,  p.  3. 


Egyptian  Calendar 

Julian  Calendar 

1  Thoth 

(30) 

...  29  August 

1  Phaophi 

(30) 

28  September 

1  Athyr 

(30) 

28  October 

1  Choiak 

(30) 

27  November 

1  Tybi 

(30) 

27  December 

1  Mechir 

(30) 

26  January 

1  Phamenoth 

(30) 

25  February 

1  Pharmuthi 

(30) 

27  March 

1  Pachon 

(30) 

26  April 

1  Payni 

(30) 

26  May 

1  Epiphi 

(30) 

25  June 

1  Mesori 

(30)  . 

25  July 

(1  Epagomenai  5) 

24  August 

The  year  was  divided  into  three  seasons,  each  of 
four  months  :  Flood  time,  Seed  time  and  Harvest  time. 

But  the  Egyptians  soon  found  that  even  a  year  of 
365  days  did  not  represent  the  correct  length  of  the 
year,  which,  as  we  now  know,  is  nearly  365}  days. 
This  fact  they  appear  to  have  discovered  in  two 
different  ways  : 

(1)  from  their  measurement  of  the  length  of  the 
year  from  heliacal  risings  of  Sirius,  and 

(2)  from  their  long  record  of  floods  extending 
over  centuries. 

The  fixed  star  Sirius,  which  is  the  most  brilliant 
star  in  the  heavens,  was  early  associated  with  the  chief 
goddess  of  the  Egyptian  pantheon,  Isis,  and  was  the 
subject  of  observation  by  her  priests.  The  day  of  its 
first  appearance  on  the  eastern  horizon  at  day-break 
(heliacal  rising)  appeared  to  have  been  carefully 
observed,  and  then  on  every  subsequent  day,  its  posi¬ 
tion  in  the  sky  at  sunrise  used  to  be  noted.  It  was 
found  that  gradually  it  got  ahead  of  the  sun,  so  its 
appearance  on  the  horizon  would  be  observed  sometime 
before  sunrise,  and  on  every  successive  sunrise,  it 
would  be  found  higher  up  in  the  heaven.  After  about 
a  year  it  would  be  seen  in  the  western  horizon  at 
sunset  for  a  few  days  till  it  could  no  longer  be  traced. 
The  Egyptians  found  as  a  result  of  long  periods  of 
observation,  that  it  came  again  to  the  horizon  at  day 
break  at  the  end  of  365}  days,  not  365  days.  If  on  one 
year,  the  heliacal  rising  of  Sirius  took  place  on  Thoth  1, 
(Thoth  was  the  name  of  the  first  month  of  the  year) 
four  years  later  it  would  take  place  on  Thoth  2,  and 
forty  years  later  on  Thoth  11.  As  the  mean  interval 


THE  SOLAE  CALENDAR 


165 


of  heliacal  rising  of  Sirius  at  the  latitude  of  Memphis 
was  365.25  days,  the  Egyptians  concluded  that  the 
heliacal  rising  of  Sirius  would  continue  to  move  round 
the  year  in  a  complete  cycle  of  ca.  1460  years  ;  called 
the  Sothic  cycle,  after  Sothis  (Isis).  They  also  appear 
to  have  found  from  observations  over  long  periods  of 
years  that  the  Nile  flood  occurred  not  at  intervals  of 
365  days,  but  of  365 J  days. 

On  account  of  the  deficiency  of  -J-  day  in  the  year, 
the  year-beginning  lost  touch  with  the  arrival  of  the 
Nile  flood,  though  the  temple  priests  had  devised  a 
method  of  finding  out  the  interval  between  Thoth  1, 
and  arrival  of  the  Nile  flood  by  observations  of  the 
heliacal  rising  of  the  bright  star  Sirius,  identified  with 
their  chief  goddess  Isis.  But  they  kept  the  knowledge 
to  themselves. 

If  the  Egyptians  carried  out  a  reform  of  their  calen¬ 
dar  incorporating  this  fact,  that  the  tropical  year  had  a 
length  of  3651  days,  their  calendar  could  have  been 
almost  perfect.  All  that  they  had  to  do  was  to  take  6 
extra  days  instead  of  5  every  fourth  year.  But  the  365- 
day  year  had  so  much  soaked  into  the  Egyptian  mind, 
that  this  move  for  calendar  reform  was  never  adopted 
inspite  of  serious  attempts  by  earlier  Pharoahs,  and 
later,  a  more  serious  one  by  the  Graeco-Egyptian 
ruler  Ptolemy  Euergetes  (  238  B.C.  ).  But  it  became 
generally  known  that  the  correct  length  of  the  year 
was  3651  days.  Fotheringham  in  his  article  on  “The 
Calendar”  observes  : 

An  additional  day  was  inserted  at  the  close  of  the 
Egyptian  year  23-22  B.C.  on  August  29  of  what  we  call  the 
Julian  calendar,  and  at  the  close  of  every  fourth  year  after¬ 
wards,  so  that  the  reformed  or  Alexandrian  year,began 
on  August  30  of  the  Julian  calendar  in  the  year  preceding 
a  Julian  leap  year  and  on  August  29  in  all  other  jears. 
The  effect  of  this  reform  was  to  keep  each  Egyptian 
month  fixed  to  the  place  in  the  natural  year  which  it 
happened  to  occupy  under  the  old  calendar  in  the  years 
26-22  B.C.  But  the  old  calendar  was  not  easily  suppressed, 
and  we  find  the  two  used  side  by  side  till  A.D.  238  at  least. 
The  old  calendar  was  probably  the  more  popular,  and 
was  preferred  by  astronomers  and  astrologers.  Ptolemy 
(150  A.D.)  always  used  it,  except  in  his  treatise  on  annual 
phenomena,  for  which  the  new  calendar  was  obviously  more 
convenient.  Theon  in  the  fourth  century  A.D.,  though 
mentioning  the  old  calendar,  habitually  used  the  new. 

Though  not  quite  perfect,  the  Egyptian  calendar 
was  greatly  admired  in  antiquity  on  account  of  its 
simplicity,  for  the  length  of  the  year  and  the  months 
were  fixed  by  definite  rules  and  not  by  officials  or 
pandits ,  The  religious  observances  fell  on  fixed  days 
6f  the  month  and  at  stated  hours,  which  were  fixed 
about  1200  B.C. 


On  account  of  its  simplicity,  the  Egyptian  calen¬ 
dar  was  adopted  by  many  nations  of  antiquity,  and 
even  sometimes  by  the  learned  Chaldeans  and  Greeks, 
Fotheringham  observes  : 

“The  Egyptian  calendar  was,  upto  the  time  of  Julius 
Caesar’s  reform  of  the  Eoman  calendar  in  46  B.C.,  the  only 
civil  calendar  in  which  the  length  of  each  month  and  of 
each  year  was  fixed  by  rule  instead  of  being  determined  by 
the  discretion  of  officials  or  by  direct  observation.  If  the 
number  of  years  between  two  astronomical  observations, 
dated  by  the  Egyptian  calendar,  was  known,  the  exact 
number  of  days  could  be  determined  by  a  simple  calculation. 
No  such  comparison  could  be  made  between  dates  referred 
to  any  other  civil  calendar  unless  the  computer  had  access 
to  a  record  showing  the  number  of  days  that  had  actually 
been  assigned  to  each  month  and  the  number  of  months  that 
had  actually  been  assigned  to  each  year.  It  is  true  that  the 
Egyptians  ■  did  not  use  a  continuous  era,  but  were  content  to 
number  the  years  of  each  reign  separately,  so  that  there  was 
a  difficulty  in  identifying  a  particular  year,  but  the  astronomers 
of  the  Ptolemaic  age  rectified  this  by  the  introduction  of 
eras.*  The  simplicity  and  regularity  of  the  Egyptian 
calendar  commended  it  to  astronomers,  who  found  it 
excellently  adapted  to  the  construction  of  tables  that  could 
be  readily  applied  and  used  even  for  a  remote  past  or  for 
a  distant  future  without  any  fear  that  the  system  by  which 
time  was  reckoned  in  the  tables  might  not  coincide  with  the 
system  in  actual  use.  In  the  second  century  B.C.  we  find 
Chaldean  observations,  sometimes  nearly  six  centuries  old, 
reduced  to  the  Egyptian  calendar  in  the  works  of 
Hipparchus  (126  B.C.),  who  observed  not  in  Egypt  but  at 
Rhodes,  and  cited  from  him  by  the  Egyptian  Ptolemy  in 
the  second  century  of  our  era  ;  we  also  find  in  the  second 
century  B.C.,  an  Athenian  observation  of  432  B.C.  reduced 
to  the  Egyptian  calendar  on  an  inscription  found  at  Miletus, 
which  appears  to  represent  the  work  of  the  astronomer 
Epigenes”.  t 

This  calendar  survives  in  a  slightly  modified  form 
in  the  Armenian  calendar,  the  three  first  months  of 
the  old  Egyptian  year  corresponding  exactly  with  the 
three  last  months  of  the  Armenian  year.  The 
Alexandrian  calendar  is  still  the  calendar  of  Abyssinia 
and  of  the  Coptic  Church,  and  is  used  for  agricultural 
purposes  in  Egypt  and  other  parts  of  northern  Africa. 

2.2.  SOLAR  CALENDARS  OF  OTHER  ANCIENT  NATIONS 

The  story  of  the  calendar  in  Egypt  has  been  given 
in  full,  because  the  ancient  Egyptians  evolved  a  very 
simple  and  convenient  calendar  which,  as  mentioned 
before,  would  have  been  almost  perfect  (provided  the 
year  was  taken  to  consist  of  365J  days  instead  of  365 
days).  This  was  rendered  possible  by  their  bold  initia- 

*  The  Nabonassar  Era — vide  §  3.4. 

t  Article  on  ‘The  Calendar’,  Nautical  Almanac,  1935. 


166 


REPOET  OF  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


-tive  of  discarding  the  moon  as  a  time-marker.  But 
people  in  the  remaining  parts  of  the  civilized  world 
{ e.g .,  in  Babylon,  Greece,  India  and  China)  in  ancient 
and  modern  times,  retained  the  moon  and  preferred 
the  more  complex  luni-solar  calendars  described 
in  Chap.  III.  This  was  rather  fortunate,  for  if  their 
rulers  had  adopted  the  Egyptian  calendar,  the  priest- 
astronomers  of  ancient  nations,  particularly  of 
Babylon,  would  never  have  taken  to  observation 
of  the  sun,  the  moon,  and  the  planets,  and  tried 
to  evolve  mathematical  formulae  for  predicting  their 
positions  amongst  stars  in  advance  (the  Ephemerides), 
which  form  the  basis  on  which  our  astronomical 
knowledge  has  been  built  up  ;  for  the  Egyptian 
calendar  was  evolved  simply  from  results  of 
experiences  extending  over  centuries,  and  required 
almost  no  astronomical  sense,  or  observations  either 
of  the  sun,  the  moon  and  stars,  except  the  heliacal 
rising  of  Sirius.  It  was  simple  and  convenient,  but 
like  many  perfect  things,  it  killed  intellectual  curiosity. 

But  as  will  be  described  in  Chap.  Ill,  the  luni-solar 
calendar  is  a  very  complex  thing,  and  has  taken  in¬ 
finite  variations  in  different  regions.  Hence  the 
simple  Egyptian  calendar  appealed  to  many  nations 
of  antiquity  as  well  as  of  modern  times.  We  have 
related  the  case  of  the  Greek  astronomers  Hipparchos 
and  Ptolemy  who  preferred  the  Egyptian  method  of 
date-recording  to  the  Greek  methods.  This  was, 
however,  not  the  solitary  instance. 

2.3  THE  IRANIAN  CALENDAR 

The  great  Iranian  conqueror  Darius  (520  B.  C.), 
whose  empire  comprised  Egypt,  Mesopotamia,  Syria 
and  Asia  Minor,  besides  his  native  country  of  Iran, 
certainly  came  into  contact  with  the  diverse  calendars 
of  older  civilizations,  but  he  appears  to  have  "preferred 
the  Egyptian  calendar  to  the  more  complex  Babylo¬ 
nian  calendar,  and  introduced  it  in  his  vast  empire. 

But  the  astronomers  of  Darius  made  correction  of 
the  deficit  of  *  day  of  the  year  in  another  way. 
They  had  all  years  of  365  days,  but  used  an  interac- 
lary  month  of  30  days  in  a  cycle  of  120  years. 

All  the  names  of  the  old  Iranian  months  and 
details  of  their  calendar  are  not  available  now.  The 
month-names  as  far  as  could  be  traced  are  stated 
below  : — ■ 

1.  Thuravahara 

2.  Thaigraci 

3.  Adukani 

4 . 

5.  Garmapada 

6 . . . 


7. 

8. 

Bagayadi 

9. 

Atriyadija 

10. 

Anamaka 

11. 

Margazana 

12. 

Viyachna 

The  Persians  did  not  have  weeks 

or  decads,  but 

named  the  successive  days  of  the 

month  serially 

according  to  their 
below  : — 

gods  or  religious 

principles,  as 

Zend 

Pehlewi 

Nearest  Vedic 

1.  Ahurahe  raazdao 

Aaharmazd 

2.  Vanheus  mananho 

Vohtiman 

3.  Ashahe  vahistahe 

Ardavahisht 

4.  Kshathrahg  vairjghe  ShatvalrO 

5.  Spentajao  armatois 

Spendarmad 

6.  Haurvatato 

Horvadad 

7.  AmeretatO 

Amerodad 

Amrtatva 

8.  Dathusho 

Dln-i-pavan 

AtarO 

9.  AthrO 

AtarO 

Atharvan 

10.  Apam 

Avan 

Apam 

11.  Hvarekshaetahe 

Kharshed 

12.  Maonho 

Mah 

13.  Tistrjshe 

Tir 

14.  Geus 

Gosh 

15.  Dathusho 

Dm-i-pavan  MitrO 

16.  Mithrahe 

MitrO 

Mitraha 

17.  Sraoshahe 

SrOsh 

18.  Rashnaos 

RashnO 

19.  Fravashinam 

Fravardln 

20.  Verethraghnahe 

Vahram 

Vrtraghnaha 

21.  Ramano 

Ram 

22.  Vatahe 

Vad 

23.  Dathusho 

Din-i-pavan  DxnO 

24.  Daenajao 

Dlno 

25.  Ashois 

Ard 

26.  Arstato 

Ashtad 

27.  AsmanO 

Asman 

28.  ZemO 

Zamjad 

29.  Mathrahgspentahg  Marspend 

30.  Anaghranam 

Anlran 

After  the  Islamic  conquest  of  Persia  in  648  A.D., 
the  purely  lunar  calendar  of  Islam  (Hejira)  was 
imposed  on  Persia,  but  it  does  not  appear  to  have 
been  liked  by  the  native  Iranians. 

In  1074-75  the  Seljuq  Sultan  Jelal  Uddin  Melik 
Shah  called  upon  the  celebrated  Omar  Khayyam  and 
seven  others  to  reform  the  old  Persian  calendar. 
The  calendar  as  reformed  by  them  was  called  Tarikh- 
i-Jelali,  its  era  was  the  10th  Ramadan  of  Hejira 


167 


471  =  16th  March,  1079  A.D.  There  are  many 
interpretations  of  the  Jelali  reform,  the  modern 
interpretation  being  8  intercalary  days  in  33  years, 
giving  the  length  of  the  year  as  365.24242  days.  The 
year  started  from  the  day  of  or  next  to  vernal  equinox. 

The  Parsees  in  India,  the  followers  of  the  Prophet 
Zarathustra  are  the  descendants  of  Iranians  who  took 
shelter  in  India  on  the  conquest  of  Persia  by  the 
Arabs.  The  following  details  about  their  calendar 
is  reproduced  from  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  (14th 
edition),  Parsees  : — 

The  Parsees  of  India  are  divided  into  two  sects,  the 
Shahanshahis  and  the  Kadmis.  They  differ  as  to  the  correct 
chronological  date  for  the  computation  of  the  era  of 
Yazdegerd,  the  last  king  of  Sassanian  dynasty,  who  was 
dethroned  by  the  caliph  Omar  about  A.D.  640.  This  led  to 
the  variation  of  a  month  in  the  celebration  of  the  festivals. 
The  Parsees  compute  time  from  the  fall  of  Yazdegerd.  Their 
calendar  is  divided  into  twelve  months  of  thirty  days  each  ; 
the  other  five  days,  being  added  for  holy  days,  are  not 
counted.  Each  day  is  named  after  some  particular  angel  of 
bliss,  under  whose  special  protection  it  is  passed.  On  feast 
days  a  division  of  five  watches  is  made  under  the  protection 
of  five  different  divinities.  In  midwinter  a  feast  of  six  days 
is  held  in  commemoration  of  the  six  periods  of  creation. 
About  March  21,  the  vernal  equinox,  a  festival  is  held  in 
honour  of  agriculture,  when  planting  begins.  In  the  middle 
of  April  a  feast  is  held  to  celebrate  the  creation  of  trees, 
shrubs  and  flowers.  On  the  fourth  day  of  the  sixth  month 
a  feast  is  held  in  honour  of  Sahrevar,  the  deity  presiding 
over  mountains  and  mines.  On  the  sixteenth  day  of  the 
seventh  month  a  feast  is  held  in  honour  of  Mithra,  the  deity 
presiding  over  and  directing  the  course  of  the  sun,  and  also 
a  festival  to  celebrate  truth  and  friendship.  On  the  tenth 
day  of  the  eighth  month  a  festival  is  held  in  honour  of 
Parvardin,  the  deity  who  presides  over  the  departed  souls  of 
men.  This  day  is  especially  set  apart  for  the  performance 
of  ceremonies  for  the  dead.  The  people  attend  on  the  hills 
where  the  “towers  of  silence”  are  situated,  and  in  the  sagris 
pray  for  the  departed  souls.  The  Parses  scriptures  require 
the  last  ten  days  of  the  year  to  be  spent  in  doing  deeds 
of  charity. 

In  modern  Iran  when  Riza  Shah  Pahlavi  came  to 
power  in  1920,  he  instituted  a  reform  of  the  .  existing 
Muslim  calendar  abandoning  the  strictly  lunar 
reckoning  and  introducing  purely  solar  year  restoring 
the  early  Persian  names  which  had  never  fallen 
entirely  out  of  use. 

The  names  of  the  months,  and  their  lengths  are 
as  follows  : 

Farvardin-mah  (31)  begins  21  or  22  March 
Ardibahisht-mah  (31)  „  21  or  22  April 

Khordad-raah  (31)  „  22  or  23  May 

Tir-mah  (31)  „  22  or  23  June 


begins  23  or  24  July 

„  23  or  24  August 

„  23  or  24  September 

„  23  or  24  October 

,,  22  or  23  November 

„  22  or  23  December 

„  21  or  22  January 

„  20  or  21  February 

2.4  THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION  CALENDAR 

The  Egyptian  calendar  attracted  the  notice  of 
the  calendar  committee  of  the  French  Revolutionary 
Government  (1789-1795)  who  wanted  to  replace 
Religion  by  Reason.  The  committee  consisted,  amongst 
others,  the  great  mathematicians  Laplace  and  Lagrange 
and  the  poet  d’Eglantine.  Laplace  proposed  that  the 
year  1250  A.D. ,  when  according  to  his  calculations  the 
equinoctial  line  was  perpendicular  to  the  apse  line  of 
the  Earth’s  orbit  should  be  taken  the  starting  point  of 
the  French  Revolution  Era  in  place  of  a  hypothetical 
year  of  Christ's  birth.  But  the  calendar  committee 
did  not  agree  with  him  but  started  the  era  of  the 
glorious  French  revolution,  with  the  autumnal 
equinox  day  of  1792  A.D.,  as  this  was  nearest  in  date 
to  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution.  Sentiment  proved 
stronger  than  cold  scientific  reasoning. 


French  Revolution  Calendar 

(  1792  Sept.  22  to  1806  ). 

(  The  Months  consist  of  30  days  each  ) 


Month 

Season 

Month  beginning 

AUTUMN 

1. 

Vendemiaire  : 

Grape  gathering 

Sept. 

22 

2. 

Brumaire  : 

Fog 

Oct. 

22 

3. 

Frimaire  : 

Frost 

Nov. 

21 

WINTER 

4. 

Nivose  : 

Snow 

Dec. 

21 

5. 

Pluviose  : 

Rain 

Jan. 

20 

6. 

Ventose  : 

Wind 

Feb. 

19 

SPRING 

7. 

Germinal  : 

Seed 

March  21 

8. 

Floreal : 

Blossom 

April 

20 

9. 

Prairial  : 

Pasture 

May 

20 

SUMMER 

10. 

Messidor  : 

Harvest 

June 

19 

11. 

Thermidor  : 

Heat 

July 

19 

12.' 

Fructidor  : 

Fruit 

Aug. 

18 

Day  of  Virtue 

Sept. 

17 

„  Genius 

99 

18 

„  Labour 

99 

19 

„  Opinion 

99 

20 

„  Rewards 

99 

21 

THE  SOLAR  CALENDAR 

Mordan-mah  (31) 
Shartvar-mah  (31) 
Mehr-mah  (30) 
Aban-mah  (30) 
Azar-mah  (30) 
Dai-mah  (30) 
Bahman-mah  (30) 
Esfand-mah  (29,  30) 


168 


REPORT  OF  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


The  seven-day  week  was  abandoned  for  a  week  of 
10  days.  The  month  names  were  invented  by  the  poet 
member  of  the  committe.  The  last  five  days  were 
dedicated  to  the  service  of  the  poor  (  Sans-Culottides  ) 
and  did  not  form  part  of  any  month. 

After  13  years  of  service,  the  French  Revolution 
calendar  was  abolished  by  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  then 
emperor  of  France,  as  part  of  his  bargain  with  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  for  his  coronation  by  the  Pope. 

2.5  THE  ROMAN  CALENDAR 

(The  Christian  Calendar) 

What  is  now  known  as  the  Christian  calendar,  and 
used  all  over  the  world  for  civil  purposes,  had  originally 
nothing  to  do  with  Christianity.  It  was,  according  to 
one  view,  originally  the  calendar  of  semi-savage  tribes 
of  Northern  Europe,  who  started  their  year  sometime 
before  the  beginning  of  Spring  (March  1  to  25)  and  had 
only  ten  months  of  304  days  ending  about  the  time  of 
winter  solstice  (December  25),  the  remaining  61  days 
forming  a  period  of  hybernation  when  no  work  could 
be  done  due  to  the  onset  of  winter,  and  were  not 
counted  at  all.  The  city  state  of  Rome  also  had 
originally  this  calendar,  but  several  corrections  were 
made  by  the  Roman  Governments  at  different  epochs 
and  the  final  shape  was  given  to  it  by  Julius  Caesar  in 
46  B.C.  ;  the  calendar  so  revised  is  known  as  the  Julian 
calendar. 

As  already  stated,  this  calendar  originally  had 
contained  ten  months  from  March  to  December 
comprising  304  days.  It  may  be  regarded  as  certain 
that  the  months  were  lunar.  The  second  Rorhan  king 
of  the  legendary  period,  Numa  Pompilius,  is  supposed 
to  have  added  two  months  (51  days)  to  th6  year  in 
about  673  B.C.,  making  a  total  of  355  days  ;  January 
(named  from  the  god  Janus,  who  faced  both  ways)  now 
began  the  year,  and  February  preceded  March,  which 
became  the  third  month.  The  number  of  days  of  the 
months  were  29,  28,  31,  29,  31,  29,  31,  29,  29,  31,  29,  29. 
Adjustment  of  the  year  to  the  proper  seasons  was 
obtained  by  intercalation  of  a  thirteenth  month  of 
actually  22  or  23  days’  length  (called  Mercedonius) 
after  two  years  or  three  years  as  was  considered  nece¬ 
ssary,  and  was  inserted  between  February  and  March.* 
Had  the  intercalation  been  applied  regularly  at  alter¬ 
nate  years  the  additional  days  in  four  years  would 
have  been  45  (22  +  23)  or  11  *  days  per  year  on  average, 

*  In  fact,  the  intercalary  month  consisted  sometimes  of  27  days 
and  sometimes  of  28  days  and  was  inserted  after  February  23.  The 
last  five  days  of  February,  which  were  due  to  be  repeated  after  the 
close  of  the  intercalary  month,  were  not  actually  repeated,  resulting 
in  the  intercalation  of  22  or  23  days  only. 


and  so  the  year-length  would  have  been  366*  days, 
only  one  day  in  excess  of  the  correct  length.  But  as 
the  intercalation  was  applied  rather  arbitrarily  some¬ 
times  after  two  years  and  sometimes  after  three  years, 
the  year-beginning  gradually  shifted  and  the  year 
started  before  the  arrival  of  the  proper  seasons. 

The  days  of  the  month  in  the  Roman  calendar  were 
enumerated  backwards  from  the  next  following  Kalends  (1st 
of  month),  Nones  (5th  of  month, except  in  the  31-day  months, 
when  the  7th  of  month),  or  Ides  (13th  of  month,  except  in 
the  31 -day  months,  when  the  15th  of  month).  The  day 
after  the  Ides  of  March,  for  instance,  would  be  expressed  as 
17  days  before  the  Kalends  of  April. 

The  Romans  upto  45  B.C.  apparently  had  rather 
a  vague  idea  of  the  correct  length  of  the  year. 
Julius  Caesar  after  his  conquest  of  Egypt  in  44  B.  C. 
introduced  the  leap-year  system  on  the  advice  of 
Egyptian  astronomer  Sosigenes,  who  suggested  that 
the  mean  length  of  the  year  should  be  fixed 
at  365*  days,  by  making  the  normal  length  of  the 
year  365  days  and  inserting  an  additional  day  every 
fourth  year.  At  the  same  time  the  lengths  of  the 
months  were  fixed  at  their  present  durations.  The 
extra  day  in  leap  years  was  obtained  by  repeating  the 
sixth  day  before  the  Kalends  of  March.  The  name 
Quintilis,  the  5th  month  from  March,  was  changed  to 
July  (Julius)  in  44  B.C.  in  honour  of  Julius  Caesar,  and 
the  name  Sextilis  was  changed  to  August  in  8  B.C. 
during  the  reign  of  his  successor,  Augustus,  and  in 
honour  of  him.  There  is  a  very  widespread  idea  that 
the  durations  of  July  and  August  were  fixed  at  31  days 
each  in  order  to  please  the  two  Roman  dictators 
Julius  Caesar,  and  Octavious  Caesar,  also  called 
Augustus,  and  for  this  purpose  the  two  extra  days  were 
cut  off  from  February,  thus  reducing  its  duration  to 
28  days.  It  is  a  nice  story,  but  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  critically  probed. 

Owing  to  the  drifting  of  the  year-beginning,  the 
year  46  B.C.  started  about  90  days  before  the  proper 
seasons.  The  months  were  first  brought  back  to  their 
correct  seasons  by  giving  the  year  corresponding  to 
46  B.C.,  a  normal  intercalation  of  23  days  after  February 
and  then  inserting  67  additional  days  between 
November  and  December.  This  year  therefore  contai¬ 
ned  445  days  in  all  and  is  known  as  the  ‘ year  of 
confusion . 

But  the  perfect  calendar  was  still  a  long  way  off. 
Caesar  wanted  to  start  the  new  year  on  the  25th 
December,  the  winter  solstice  day.  But  people  resisted 
that  choice  because  a  new-moon  was  due  on  January  1, 
45  B.C.  and  some  people  considered  that  the  new-moon 
was  lucky.  Caesar  had  to  go  along  with  them  in  their 
desire  to  start  the  new  reckoning  on  a  traditional  lunar 
landmark. 


the'  solae  calendar 


169 


The  Julian  calendar  spread  throughout  the  Roman 
empire  apd  survived  the  introduction  of  Christianity. 
But  the  Christians  introduced  their  own  holidays 
which  wer®  partly  Jewish  in  origin  and  for  this,  luni- 
solar  and  week-day  reckonings  had  to  be  adopted. 

Origin  of  the  Seven-day  Week 

Historical  scholarship  has  shown  that  unlike  the 
year  and  the  month,  the  seven-day  week  is  an  artificial 
man-made  cycle.  The  need  for  having  this  short 
cycle  arose  out  of  the  psychological  need  of  mankind 
for  having  a  day  of  rest  and  religious  service  after 
protracted  labour  extending  over  days.  The  seven-day 
week  with  a  sabbatical  day  at  the  end,  or  something 
similar  to  it,  is  needed  not  only  by  God  Almighty,  but 
also  by  humbler  toiling  men.  But  there  has  been  no 
unanimity  of  practice. 

As  already  stated,  the  ancient  Egyptians  had  a  ten- 
day  week.  The  Vedic  Indians  had  a  six-day  week 
The  ancient  Babylonians  who  started  the  month  on  the 
day  after  new-moon,  had  the  first,  eighth,  fifteenth, 
and  the  twenty-second  day  marked  out  for  religious 
services.  This  was  a  kind  of  seven-day  week  with 
sabbaths,  but  the  last  week  might  be  of  eight  or  nine 
days’  duration,  according  as  the  month  which  was 
lunar  had  a  length  of  29  or  30  days.  The  ancient 
Iranians  had  a  separate  name  for  each  day  of  the 
month,  but  some  days,  at  intervals  of  approximately 
seven,  were  marked  out  as  Din-i-Parvan,  for  religious 
practices.  The  pattern  followed  appears  to  have  been 
similar  to  the  Babylonian  practice.  The  continuous 
seven-day  week  came  into  general  use  sometime  after 
the  first  century  A.D.  It  was  unknown  to  the  Writers 
of  the  New  Testament  who  do  not  mention  anything 
about  the  week  day  on  which  Christ  was  crucified  or 
the  week  day  on  which  he  is  alleged  to  have  ascended 
to  Heaven.  The  fixing  of  Friday  and  Sunday  for  these 
incidents  is  a  later  concoction,  dating  from  the  fifth 
century  after  Christ.  All  that  the  New  Testament 
books  say  is  that  He  was  crucified  on  the  day  before  the 
Hebrew  festival  of  Passover  which  used  to  be  celebrated 
and  is  still  celebrated  on  the  full-moon  day  of  the 
month  of  Nisan. 

The  continuous  seven-day  week  was  evolved  on 
astrological  grounds  by  unnamed  astronomers  who 
may  have  been  Chaldean  or  Greek  at  an  unknown 
epoch,  but  before  the  first  century  A.D.  The  Jews 
adopted  it  as  a  cardinal  part  of  their  faith  during 
days  of  their  contact  with  the  Chaldeans.  It  is  not  their 
invention.  We  give  a  short  story  of  this  invention,  as 
it  is  generally  believed.  But  it  may  not  be  quite 
accurate  in  all  details. 


Invention  of  the  Seven-day  Week 

Much  of  ancient  astronomical  knowledge  is  due  to 
Chaldean  astronomers  who  flourished  between  the 
seventh  century  B.C.  and  the  third  century  A.D.,  as 
related  in  §4*7.  They  gave  particular  attention  to  the 
study  of  the  movement  of  the  sun,  the  moon  and 
the  planets,  which  they  identified  with  their  gods, 
because  they  thought  that  destiny  of  kings  and  states 
were  controlled  by  the  gods,  i.e.,  by  the  planets, 
and  attached  the  greatest  importance  to  the  observa¬ 
tion  of  the  position  and  movement  of  planets.  They 
attached  magical  value  to  the  number  ‘Seven’  which 
was  the  number  of  planets  or  gods  controlling  human 
destiny. 

In  ‘Planetary  Astrology’,  the  sun,  the  moon  and 
the  five  planets,  were  identified  with  the  chief  gods  of 
the  Babylonian  pantheon  as  given  below  : 

Planets  Babylonian 


Qod-names  lheir  function 


(1) 

Saturn . . 

.  .Ninib 

God  of  Pestilence  and 
Misery. 

(2) 

Jupiter.. 

Marduk  .. 

King  of  Gods. 

(3) 

Mars . 

.  Nergal 

God  of  War. 

(4) 

Sun . 

. .  Shamash . . 

God  of  Law  &  Order  or 
Justice. 

(5) 

Venus... . 

.  .Ishtar . 

Goddess  of  Fertility. 

(6) 

Mercury.  ..Nabu . 

..  •  God  of  Writing. 

.(7) 

Moon. . .. 

...Sin . 

God  of  Agriculture. 

These  seven  gods,  sitting  in  solemn  conclave,  were 
supposed  to  control  the  destinies  of  kings  and 
countries,  and  it  was  believed  that  their  will  and 
judgement  with  respect  to  a  particular  country  or  its 
ruler  could  be  obtained  from  an  interpretation  of  the 
position  of  the  seven  planets  in  the  heavens,  and  the 
nature  of  motion  of  the  planets  (direct  or  retrograde). 

The  Chaldean  god-names  are  given  in  the  second 
column,  and  the  functions  they  control  in  the  third 
column.  Their  identification  with  the  Roman  gods  is 
given  in  the  first  column.  The  planets*  were  put 
in  the  order  of  their 'supposed  distances  from  the  earth. 

Further,  the  day  was  divided  into  24  hours,  and 
each  of  the  seven  gods  was  supposed  to  keep  watch 
on  the  world  over  each  hour  of  the  day  in  rotation. 
The  particular  day  was  named  after  the  god  who 
kept  watch  at  the  first  hour.  Thus  on  Saturday,  the 
watching  god  on  the  first  hour  was  Saturn,  and 
the  day  was  named  after  him.  The  succeeding 


*Planets  used  not  in  modem  sense  but  in  the  old  sense  of  a  wander¬ 
ing  heavenly  body. 


170 


REPORT  OF  THE  CALENDAR  EEFOEM  COMMITTEE 


hours  of  Saturday  were  watched  by  the  seven  gods 
in  rotation  as  follows  : 

Saturday 

Hours  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8... 14  15  22  23  24  25 

God  Watching  1234567  1...7  1  1  2  3  4  (Sun) 

The  table  shows  the  picture  for  Saturday.  On 
this  day,  Saturn  keeps  watch  at  the'  first  hour,  so  the 
day  is  named  after  him.  The  second  hour  is  watched 
over  by  (2)  Jupiter,  third  by  (3)  Mars  and  so  on. 
Saturn  is  thus  seen  to  preside  at  the  8th,  15th  and 
22nd  hours  of  Saturday.  Then  for  the  23rd,  24th  and 
25th  hours  come  in  succession  (2)  Jupiter,  (3)  Mars 
and  (4)  Sun.  The  25th  hour  is  the  first  hour  of  the 
next  day,  which  was  accordingly  named  after  the 
presiding  planet  of  the  hour,  vix..  No.  4  which  is 
Sun.  We  thus  get  Sunday  following  Saturday.  If 
we  now  repeat  the  process,  we  get  the  names  of  the 
week  days  following  each  other,  as  follows  : 

Saturday,  Sunday,  Monday,  Tuesday, 
Wednesday,  Thursday,  and  Friday. 


Mercury 

Fig.  1 — The  order  of  week-days  derived  from  the  order  of  planets. 

Saturday  followed  by  Sunday,  then  Monday  and  so  on. 

The  Jews,  it  may  be  mentioned,  reckon  the  days 

by  ordinal  numbers — the  first,  second . seventh 

day.  The  first  day  is  Saturday. 

The  seven-day  week,  from  the  account  of  its  origin 
is  clearly  based  on  astrological  ideology.  The  conti¬ 
nuous  seven-day  week  was  unknown  to  the  classical 
Greeks,  the  Romans,  the  Hindus,  and  early  Christians. 
It  was  introduced  into.$he  Christian  world  by  an  edict 
of  the  Roman  emperor  Constantine,  about  323  A.D., 
who  changed  the  Sabbath  to  the  Lord's  Day  (Sunday), 
the  week-day  next  to  the  Jewish  Sabbath.  Its 
introduction  into  India  is  about  the  same  time  and 
from  the  same  sources.  The  week-days  are  not 
found  in  earlier  Hindu  scriptures  like  the  Vedas  or 


the  classics  like  the  great  epic  Mahabharata.  They 
occur  in  inscriptions  Only  from  484  A.D.,  but  not  in 
inscriptions  of  300  A.D.  Even  now\  they  form  but  an 
unimportant  part  in  the  religious  observances  of  the 
Hindus  which  are  determined  by  the  moon’s  phases. 

It  can  therefore  be  said  that  the  unbroken  seven- 
day  week  was  not  a  part  of  the  religious  life  of  any 
ancient  nation,  and  it  is  not,  even  now,  part  of  the 
religious  life  of  many  modern  nations.  It  is  a  man-made 
institution  introduced  on  psychological  grounds,  and 
therefore  can  be  or  should  be  modified  if  that  leads 
to  improvement  and  simplification  of  human  life. 

The  Christian  Era 

The  present  Christian  era  came  into  vogue  much 
later.  About  530  A.D.,  the  era-beginning  was  fixed 
from  the  birth  year  of  Christ  which  was  fixed  after 
a  certain  amount  of  research  by  the  Scythian  Bishop 
Dionysius  Exiguus  and  Christ’s  birth  day  (Christmas) 
was  fixed  on  December  25  which  was  the  Julian  date 
for  the  winter  solstice  day  and  the  ceremonial  birth 
day  of  the  Persian  god  Mithra  in  the  first  century  B.C, 
The  discovery  of  a  Roman  inscription  at  Ankara  shows 
that  King  Herod  of  the  Bible  who  is  said  to  have 
ordered  the  massacre  of  innocents  was  dead  for  four 
years  at  1  A.D.,  and  therefore  Christ  must  have  been 
born  on  4  B.C.,  or  somewhat  earlier. 

2.6  THE  GREGORIAN  CALENDAR 

The  Julian  year  of  365.25  days  was  longer  than 
the  true  year  of  365.2422  by  .0078  days,  so  the  winter 
solstice  day  which  fell  on  December  21  in  323  A.D., 
fell  back  by  10  days  in  1582  A.D.  and  the  Christmas 
day  appeared  to  be  losing  all  connections  with  the 
winter  solstice.  Similar  discrepancy  was  also  noticed 
in  connection  with  the  observance  of  the  Easter.* 
Various  proposals  were  made  .for  correcting  the 
error  and  the  Council  of  Trent  which  assembled  in 
1545  authorised  the  Pope  to  *  deal  with  the  matter. 
When  in  1572,  Gregory  XIII  became  Pope,  these 
schemes  were  considered  and  the  plan  that  was  most 

*  Easter,  the  most  joyous  of  the  Christian  festivals,  is  observed 
annually  throughout  Christendom  in  commemoration  of  the  resurrec¬ 
tion  of  Jesus  Christ,  on  the  first  Sunday  after  the  full-moon 
following  the  vernal  equinox  day.  The  last  days  of  Christ  coincided 
with  the  Passover  fast  of  the  Jews  and  his  death  fell  upon  the  day 
of  the  feast  of  the  Passover,  on  the  14th  day  of  the  month  of  Nisan. 
As  the  date  of  Easter  is  associated  with  the  moon’s  phases,  as  well 
as  the  vernal  equinox  day,  it  is  a  movable  festival,  falling  anywhere 
between  March  22  and  April  25.  A  movement  is  going  on  for 
narrowing  down  the  range  of  variation  of  the  Easter  day  ;  in  1928 
the  British  Parliament  passed  the  Easter  Act,  which  contingent 
upon  its  acceptance  internationally,  fixed  Easter  day  as  the  first 
Sunday  after  the  second  Saturday  in  April,  falling  between  April 
9  and  15.  {Vide  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  Easter). 


THE  SOS  A  B  CALENDAR  171 


favouced  was  the  one  that  had  been  proposed- by' 
Aloysius  Lilius,  a  Neapolitan  physician.  In  1582,  Pope 
Gregpry  XIII  published  a  bull  instituting  the  revised 
calendar  and  ordained  that  Friday,  October  5  of  that 
year  was  to  be  counted  as  Friday,  October  15.  For 
the  future,  centurial  years  that  were  not  divisible  by 
400  were  not  to  count  as  leap-years  ;  in  consequence 
the  number  of  leap-years  in  400  years  was  reduced 
from  100  to  97  and  the  year-lepgth  of  the  calendar 
thus  became  365*2425  days,  the  error  being  only  one 
day  in  3300  years. 

The  Gregorian  reformation  of  the  calendar  was 
at  once  adopted  by  the  Catholic  states  of  Europe, 
but  other  Christian  states  took  longer  time  to  accept 
it.  In  Great  Britain  it  was  officially  introduced  in 
1752.  As  the  error  had  by  that  time  amounted  to 
11  days,  the  September  of  1752  was  deprived  of  these 
days  and  3rd  September  was  designated  as  the  14th 
September.  In  some  countries  the  Gregorian  calendar 
was  not  adopted  until  the  present  century.  China 
and  Albania  adopted  it  in  1912,  Bulgaria  in  1916, 
Soviet  Russia  in  1918,  Roumania  and  Greece  in  1924, 
and  Turkey  in  1927.  The  rules  for  Easter  which 
\yere  revised  on  the  basis  of  the  Gregorian  calendar 
have  not  been  adopted  by  the  Greek  orthodox 
Church. 

Inspite  of  its  wide  use,  the  Christian  or  Gregorian 
calendar  is  a  clumsy  and  inconvenient  system  of  time¬ 
reckoning  on  account  of  the  arbitrary  length  of  its 
months  ranging  from  28  to  31.  With  a  view  to 
reforming  it  many  schemes  have  been  proposed,  but 
the  one  deserving  of  serious  consideration  is  the  new 
World  Calendar  advocated  originally  by  the  Italian 
astronomer  Armellini  in  1887  and  adopted  by  the 
World  Calendar  Association,  Inc.,  which  has  its  head¬ 
quarters  in  New  York  (630,  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York 
20,  N.  Y),  under  the  able  presidentship  of  Miss 
Elisabeth  Achelis.* 

In  the  ecclesiastical  calendar  some  holy  days  are 
observed  on  fixed  days  of  the  year,  others  known  as 
movable  festivals  are  .  observed  on  fixed  days  of  the 
week.  Most  of  these  are  at  fixed  intervals  before  or 
after  Easter  day.  When  the  Easter  day  of  any  year 
is  fixed,  the  dates  of  other  movable  festivals  can 
accordingly  be  ascertained.  The  Council  of  Nice 
convened  in  325  A.D.  adopted  the  rule  for  fixing  the 
date  of  Easter — it  was  to  fall  on  the  first  Sunday  after 
the  .  14th  day  of  the  moon  (nearly  full  moon)  which 
occurs  on  or  immediate^  after  March  21.  In  fact 
there  are  certain  special  tables  for  determining  the 

*  She  had  been  devoting  ,her  services  ungrudgingly  for  the 
cause  of  calendar  reform  for  the  last  twenty-five  years,  and  also  been 
publishing  a  ‘Journal  of  Calendar  Reform’  since  then. 


Easter  day,  based  on  the  mean  length  of  the  lunar 
month,  and  the  determination  does  not  require  any 
advance  calculation  of  moon's  position.  The  following: 
are  the  principal  holidays  dependent  on  the  date  of 
Easter. 

Days  before  Easter  Days  after  Easter 

Septuagesima  Sunday  63  Low  Sunday  7 

Quinquagesima  „  49  Rogation  Sunday  35 

Ash  Wednesday  46  Ascension  Day  39 

Quadragesima  Sunday  42  Whit  Sunday  49  - 

Palm  Sunday  7  Trinity  Sunday  56 

Good  Friday  2  Corpus  Christi  60 

2.7  THE  WORLD  CALENDAR 

As  already  stated  the  Gregorian  calendar  is  a  most 
inconvenient  system  of  time-reckoning.  The  days  of 
the  months  vary  from  28  to  31  ;  quarters  consist  of  90 
to  92  days  ;  and  the  two  half-years  contain  181  and  184 
days.  The  week-days  wander  about  the  month  from 
year  to  year,  so  the  year  and  month  beginnings  may  fall 
on  any  week-day,  and  this  causes  serious  inconvenience 
to  civic  and  economic  activities.  The  number  of 
working  days  per  month  varies  from  24  to  27,  which 
creates  considerable  confusion  and  uncertainty  in 
economic  dealings  and  in  the  preparation  and  analysis 
of  statistics  and  accounts.  The  present  Gregorian 
calendar  is  therefore  in  dire  need  of  reform. 

The  question  of  resolving  these  difficulties  had 
been  under  consideration  for  more  than  the  last  100 
years.  In  1834,  the  Italian  Padre  Abbe'  Mastrofini 
proposed  the  Thirteen-Month  Calendar,  which  was 
strongly  advocated  by  the  positivist  philosopher  August 
Comte.  But  this  calendar  could  not  attract  much 
attention  and  consequently  it  was  abandoned.  The 
plan  of  reform  which  has  received  the  most  favourable 
comments  is,  as  mentioned  earlier,  that  of  the  World 
Calendar  Association.  . 

Let  us  explain  the  ideas  behind  this  movement  : 

Calendars  are  used  for  regulating  two  essentially- 
distinct  types  of  human  activities,  vix., 

(a)  Civic  and  administrative, 

(b)  Social  and  religious. 

In  ancient  and  medieval  times,  different  countries 
and  religions  had  developed  their  characteristic  calen¬ 
dars  to  serve  both  purposes,  but'  in  the  modern  age, 
due  to  historic  reasons,  almost  all  countries  use  : 

(a)  the  Gregorian  calendar  for  regulation  ot 
civic  and  administrative  life, 

(b)  their  own  characteristic  calendars  for  regu¬ 
lation  of  social  and  religious  observances. 


0.  R.— 80 


REPORT  OE  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


172 

For  example,  India  uses  the  Gregorian  calendar  for 
civic  and  administrative  purposes,  but  various  luni-solar 
calendars  for  fixing  up  dates  for  religious  festivals  of 
Hindus  in  different  states.  The  Islamic  countries  also 
follow  the  same  practice — Gregorian  calendar  for  civic 
and  administrative  purposes,  but  the  lunar  calendar 
for  religious  purposes. 

Even  in  Christian  countries,  which  apparently  use 
the  Gregorian  calendar  for  both  purposes,  in  actual 
practice,  some  additional  time-reckonings  have  to  be 
done  for  fixing  the  date  of  Easter  and  other  holi¬ 
days  which  move  with  it.  These  reckonings  constitute 
the  ecclesiastic  calendar,  and  are  survival  of  earlier 
luni-solar  calendars. 

The  disadvantages  •  of  the  Gregorian  calendar  as 
used  for  civic  and  administrative  purposes  are  : 

(a)  that  the  years  and  months  begin  on  different 
week  days, 

(b)  that  months  are  of  unequal  length — from  28 
to  31  days — and  they  start  on  week-days 
which  ate  most  changeable. 

This  happens  because  a  normal  year  of  365  days 
consists  of  52  weeks  plus  one  day  ;  and  a  leap-year 
coming  every  fourth  year,  has  366  days,  and  consists  of 
52  weeks  plus  2  days.  If  a  normal  year  begins  on  a 
Sunday,  the  next  year  will  start  on  Monday,  and  the 
year  after  a  leap-year  will  jump  two  week-days. 

This  causes  a  most  undesirable  wandering  of  the 
week-day  on  which  the  year  begins,  as  is  seen  for  the 
next  few  years.  This  year  1954,  has  started  on  a 
Friday.  We  shall  have 


1955 

starting  on  Saturday 

1956 

„  „  Sunday 

1957 

„  „  Tuesday 

1958 

„  „  Wednesday 

1959 

„  „  Thursday 

1960 

„  „  Friday 

1961 

„  „  Sunday 

How  much  better  it  would  be  for  civic  and  adminis¬ 
trative  life  if  a  system  could  be  devised  that  every  year 
should  start  on  a  Sunday  ? 

The  World  Calendar  Plan 

This  is  how  the  World  Calendar  Plan  proposes  to 
prevent  this  wandering  of  the  starting-day  of  the  year. 
It  is  a  Very  simple  device. 

If  from  1961,-.v*hich  starts  on  a  Sunday,  the  last  day 
of  the  year  (i.e.  Dec.  51)  which  would  be  under  the 
present  system  a  Sunday,  is  called  the  Worldsday,  that 
is,  no  week-day  denomination  is  attached  to  it,  then 
1962  also  will  start  on  a  Sunday,  and  so  will  every  year 
till  the  next  leap-year  1964.  On  that  year  another 


additional  day,  the  Leap-Year  Bay,  is  inserted  at  the 
end  of  June,  and  have  the  usual  Worldsday  at  the  end 
of  the  year  ;  then  1965  will  also  start  on  a  Sunday. 

So,  by  this  simple  device  of  having  a  Worlds-day 
at  the  end  of  every  year  and  a  Leap-Year  Day  at  the 
end  of  June  every  fourth  year,  both  without  any 
week-day  denomination,  every  year  can  be  made  to 
start  on  a  Sunday.  This  will  prove  to  be  an  inestimable 
advantage  for  the  civic  life  of  mankind. 

It  is  needless  to  add  illustrations  of  the  chaotic  way 
in  which  the  starting  week-days  of  months  vary.  They 
are  chaotic,  because  lengths  of  months  vary  from  28 
to  31.  There  is  not  the  slightest  scientific  justifica¬ 
tion  for  these  varying  lengths.  They  are  said  to  have 
been  due  to  the  caprice  of  two  Roman  dictators,  or 
some  other  historical  cause  not  yet  clear.  How  much 
better  it  would  be  for  civic  purposes,  if  each  month 
could  start  on  a  fixed  day  of  the  week  ? 

The  World  Calendar  plan  proposes  to  put  this  right 
by  dividing  the  year  into  four  quarters,  each  of  three 
months  of  31,  30,  30  days’  duration.  According  to  this 
plan, 

January,  April,  July,  October  would  have  each 
31  days,  and  start  on  Sunday, 

February,  May,  August,  November  would  have  each 
30  days,  and  start  on  Wednesday, 

March,  June,  September,  December  would  have 
each  30  days,  and  start  on  Friday. 

If  this  plan  be  adopted,  the  calendar  will  be  perpe¬ 
tual  and  fool-proof.  What  a  welcome  change  it  would 
prove  when  compared  to  the  present  chaotic  and 
wandering  calendar  ? 

The  year  has  to  conform  to  the  period  of  the  sun, 
and  this  is  covered  by  the  leap-year  rules,  amended 
by  Pope  Gregory  XIII  in  1582.  The  leap-year  rules 
introduced  by  the  Iranian  poet-astronomer  Omar 
Khayyam  in  1079,  were  more  accurate,  but  less 
convenient.  The  Gregorian  leap-year  rules  will 
cause  a  mistake  of  only  one  day  in  3,300  years,  which 
is  trivial. 

As  regards  the  duration  of  months,  the  World 
Calendar  plan  is  a  marked  improvement  oh  the 
chaotic  lengths  and  starting  days  of  months,  inherited 
.  from  the  Julian  calendar,  which  has  been  tolerated 
too  long.  The  months  of  all  the  quarters  are  identical 
and  have  got  31,  30  &  30  days,  commencing  on 
Sundays,  Wednesdays  and  Fridays  respectively.  Each 
month  has  thus  got  exactly  26  working  days.  It  has 
retained  the  present  12  months,  thus  the  four  quarters 
are  always  equal,  each  quarter  has  3  months  or  13 
weeks  or  91  days  beginning  on  Sunday  and  ending 
with  Saturday. 


THE  SOLAS  CALENDAR 


173 


The  objections  to  the  World  Calendar  plan  come 
from  several  Jewish  organizations,  on  the  ground  that 
the  World  Calendar  plan  interferes  with  .  the 
unbroken  seven-day  week,  by  introducing  Worlds- 
day  and  Leap-year.  Day  without  any  week-day 
denomination.  This,  they  say,  will  interfere  with 
their  religious  life. 

As  already  shown,  the  religious  sanction  for  the 
seven-day  cycle  is  either  non-existent,  or  slight, 
amongst  communities  other  than  the  Jews,  and  even 
amongst  them,  it  dates  only  from  the  first  century  A.  D. 
The  claims  of  certain  Jewish  Rabbis  to  prove  that  the 
seven-day  week  cycle  has  been  ordained  by  God 
Almighty  from  the  moment  of  creation  which  event, 
according  to  these  Jewish  Rabbis,  took  place  on  the 
day  of  the  autumnal  equinox,  also  a  new  moon  day, 
is  a  fantastic  conception  of  medieval  scholars,  which 
no  sane  man  can  entertain  in  these  days  of  Darwin  and 
Einstein. 

The  World  Calendar  plan  has  no  intention  of 
interfering  with  the  .  characteristic  calendars  of 
communities  or  nations.  They  can  exist  side  by  side 
with  the  World  C^endar.  For  such  communities  as 
intend  to  maintain  the  continuous  seven-day  week, 
their  religious  week-days,  including  Sundays,  would 
no  doubt  wander  through  the  World  Calendar  week¬ 
days,  and  cause  some  inconvenience  to  the  very  small 


fraction  of  people  who  would  want  to  observe  their 
religious  rites  according  to  established  usage. 

But  these  inconveniences  can  be  adjusted  by 
agreement,  and  it  would  be  egoistical  on  the  part  of 
a  particular  community  or  communities  to  try  to 
impede  the  passage  of  a  measure  of  such  great  useful¬ 
ness  to  the  whole  of  mankind  on  the  plea  that  the 
World  Calendar  plan  interferes  with  the  continuous 
seven-day  week.  Calendars  are  based  on  Science, 
which  everybody  must  bow  to  ;  and  on  Convention, 
which  may  be  altered  by  mutual  consent.  The 
unbroken  seven-day  week  is  a  Convention ,  but  the 
World  Calendar  plan  has  proposed  a  far  better  Converir- 
tion ,  which  should  be  examined  on  its  own  merits.* 

As  a  result  of  a  request  from  the  Government  of 
India,  the  proposal  of  the  World  Calendar  Reform 
had  become  the  subject  of  discussion  at  the  eighteenth 
session  of  the  Economic  and  Social  Council  of  the 
United  Nations  held  at  Geneva  during  June-July, 
1954.  Professor  M.  N.  Saha,  F.  R.  S.,  Chairman, 
Calendar  Reform  Committee,  attended  the  ECOSOC 
meeting  at  Geneva  to  explain  the  desirability  of  the 
proposed  reform. 


*  Being  the  full  text  of  the  address  in  support  of  the  Indian 
proposal  for  World  Calendar  reform,  by  Prof.  M.  N.  Saha,  F.R.S.  at 
the  18th  Session  of  the  Economic  and  Social  Council  of  the  United 
Nations,  held  at  Geneva  in  June-July,  1954. 


THE  WORLD  CALENDAR 


In  this  Improved  Calendar  : 

*  Every  year  is  the  same. 

*  The  quarters  are  equal  :  each  quarter  has 
exactly  91  days,  13  weeks  or  3  months  ;  the 
four  quarters  are  identical  in  form. 

*  Each  month  has  26  weekdays,  plus  Sundays. 

*  Each  year  begins  on  Sunday,  1  January  ;  each 
working  year  begins  on  Monday,  2  January. 

*  Each  quarter  begins  on  Sunday,  ends,  on 
Saturday. 

*  The  calendar  is  stabilized  and  perpetual,  by 
ending  the  year  with  a  365th  day  that  follows 
30  December  each  year,  called  Worldsday  dated 
“W”  or  31  December,  a  year-end  world  holiday. 
Leap-year  day  is  similarly  added  at  the  end  of 
the  second  quarter,  called  Leapyear  Day  dated 
“W”  or  31  June,  another  world  holiday  in 
leap  years. 


r 

OUARTtt 

2" 

QUARTER 

3" 

QUARTER 

4" 

QUARTER 


JANUARY 

FEBRUARY 

MARCH 

S  M  T  W  T  F  S 

S  M  T  w  T  F  S 

S  M  T  W  T  F  S 

1  2  3  4  5  6  7 

8  9  10  11  12  13  14 
15  16  17  18  19  20  21 
22  23  24  25  26  27  28 
29  30  31 

12  3  4 
5  6  7  8  9  10  11 
12  13  14  15  16  17  18 
19  20  21  22  23  24  25 
26  27  28  29  30 

1  2 

3  4  5  6  7  8  9 
10  11  12  13  14  15  16 
17  18  18  20  21  22  23 
24  25  26  27  28  29  30 

1  1 

APRIL 

MAY 

JUNE 

S  M  T  W  T  F  S 

S  M  T  w  T  F  S 

S  M  T  W  T  F  S 

1  2  3  4  5  6  7 
8  9  10  11  12  13  14 
15  16  17  18  19  20  21 
22  23  24  25  26  27  28 
29  30  31 

12  3  4 
5  6  7  8  9  10  11 
12  13  14  15  16  17  18 
19  20  21  22  23  24  25 
26  27  28  29  30 

1  2 

3  4  5  6  7  8  9 
10  11  12  13  14  15  16 
17  18  19  20  21  22  23 
24  25  26  27  28  29  309 

1  T 

JULY 

AUGUST 

SEPTEMBER 

»  M  T  W  T  F  S 

S  M  T  W  T  F  S 

S  M  T  W  T  F  S 

1  2  3  4  5  6  7 
8  9  10  11  12  13  14 
15  16  17  18  19  20  21 
22  23  24  25  26  27  28 
29  30  31 

12  3  4 
5  6  7  8  9  10  11 
12  13  14  15  16  17  18 
19  20  21  22  23  24  25 
26  27  28  29  30 

1  2 

3  4  5  6  7  8  9 
10  11  12  13  14  15  16 
17  18  19  20  21  22  23 
24  25  26  27  28  29  30 

1  _ 

OCTOBER 

NOVEMBER 

DECEMBER 

s  M  T  W  T  F  s 

S  M  T  W  T  F  S 

8  M  T  W  T  F  S 

1  2  3  4  V  «  7, 
8  9  10  11  12  13*M 
15  16  17  18  19  20  21 
22  23  24  25  26  27  28 
29  30  31 

12  3  4 
>5  6  7  8  9  10  11 
12  13  14  15  16  17  18 
19  20  21  22  23  24  25 
26  27  28  29  30 

1  2 

3  4  5  6  7  8  9 

10  11  12  13  14  15  16 
17  18  19  20  21  22  23 
24  25  26  27  28  29  30  9 

w  (Worldidiy.  a  World  Halida?)  Hah  31  Draiakar  (SSSUi  day)  and  Mint  30  Dram. 
W  Otajyaar  Dn.'uwtMr  World  Holiday)  H«ab  3L  Jnon  and  IoIIom  30  Jana  in  hay  mart 


CHAPTER  m 


The  Limi-Solar  and  Lunar  Calendars 


3.1  PRINCIPLES  OF  LUNI-SOLAR  CALENDARS 

The  Egyptians  appear  to  have  been  the  only 
cultural  nation  of  antiquity  who  discarded  the  moon 
entirely  as  a  time-marker.  Other  contemporaneous 
cultural  nations,  e.g.,  the  Sumero-Akkadians  of 
Babylon,  and  the  Vedic  Indians  retained  both  the  sun 
and  the  moon  as  time-markers,  the.sun  for  the  year,  the 
moon  for  the  month. 

The  Indian  astronomers  called  the  moon  m&sakrt, 
(month-maker)  and  before  the  Siddhtinta  Jyotiqa  time, 
the  moon  was  considered  more  important  as  a  time- 
marker  than  the  sun  ( vide  §5).  It  was  the  same  with 
other  nations  too,  for  as  Pannekoek  remarks,  we  find 
the  opinion  written  in  the  sacred  books  of  many 
nations  “For  regulating  time,  the  moon  has  been 
created’’. 

The  retention  of  both  the  sun  and  the  moon, 
however,  gives  rise  to  a  multitude  of  problems,  of  vyhich 
a  fair  summary  is  given  by  Pannekoek  as  follows.* 

“With  all  peoples  of  antiquity,  the  Indians,  Babylonians, 
Jews,  Greeks,  we  find  the  moon-calendar  used  ;  the  period 
of  the  moon,  the  regular  sequence  of  the  first  appearance  of 
the  fine  crescent  moon  in  the  evening  sky,  its  growth  to  first 
quarter,  to  full  moon,  at  the  same  time  coming  up  later  and 
filling  the  whole  night,  then  the  decrease  to  last  quarter  till 
its  disappearance  after  the  last  thin  crescent  before  sunrise 
was  seen, — tbis  regular  cycle  of  the  moon’s  phases  in  the 
period  of  29J  days  was  everywhere  the  first  *  basis  of 
chronology”. 

“But  the  calendar  could  not  be  satisfactorily  fixed  with 
the  establishment  of  the  moon-cycle.  In  these  ancient 
times,  the  people,  the  tribe,  and  the  state  was  a  political, 
spiritual  and  religious  unity.  Important  events  of  society, 
the  great  agricultural  performances,  the  beginning  of  the 
ploughing,  the  sowing  or  the  harvesting  were  great  popular 
festivals  and  at  the  same  time  chief  religious  ceremonies, 
when  offerings  were  presented  to  the  gods.  The  moon 
calendar  had  to  adapt  itself  to  the  economic  life  of  the 
people,  which  was  governed  by  the  cycle  of  seasons.  Thus 
arose  the  practical  problem  of  adapting  the  moon-period  of 
29b  days'  to  the  solar  year  of  365  days.  This  chief  problem 
of- ancient  chronoVty^fluti  been  a  mighty  impulse  to  the  study 
of  astronomy,  because  it  'Necessitated  continuous  observation 
of  the  sky." 

*  Article  on  'Astrology  and  its  influence  upon  the  development 
of  Astronomy'  by  Anton  Pannekoek,  published  in  the  Journal  of  the 
Royal  Astronomical  Society  of  Canada,  April,  1930. 


Twelve  lunar  months  of  29 b  days  each,  making  a 
total  of  354  days,  fall  nearly  11  days  short  of  the  solar 
year.  In  the  next  year,  the  beginning  of  each  month 
occurs  11  days  earlier,  in  three  years  33  days  will  be 
lost.*  To  fix  the  same  month  to  the  same  season 
always,  there  are  no  other  means  than  after  two  oi 
three  years  to  intercalate  a  Thirteenth  Month,  number 
13,  by  repeating  the  last  month  of  the  year. 

The  luni-solar  adjustment  which  is  next  taken  up 
is  the  first  step  to  the  solution  of  problems  stated  by 
Pannekoek,  but  it  is  not  however  the  whole  solution, 
for  it  leaves  untouched  the  problem  of  correct  predic¬ 
tion  of  the  day  when  the.  ere  scent  of  the  moon  first 
appears  after  new  moon  in  the  western  horizon.  This 
will  be  taken  up  later  {vide  §4). 

Luni-solar  adjustment  can  be  satisfactorily  made 
if  we  have  accurate  knowledge  of  the  length  of  the 
tropical  year,  and  of  the  mean  length  of  the  lunation. 
Let  us  see  how  these  fundamental  periods  were 
determined  in  ancient  times. 

Length  of  Seasons  and  the  Year 

The  length  of  the  year  was  obtained  in  Egypt,  as 
we  have  already  seen,  from  the  recurrence  of  the  Nile 
flood.  In  Babylonia,  no  such  striking  natural 
phenomena  were  available.  It  is  very  probable  that 
the  Babylonians  early  learnt  the  use  of  the  gnomon, 
with  the  aid  of  which  they  could  determine  the 
cardinal  days  of  the  year  :  vix.,  the  summer  and  winter 
solstices,  and  the  two  equinoxes  coming  in  between. 

The  lengths  of  the  seasons  were  found  by  counting 
the  number  of  days  from  one  cardinal  day  to  the  next. 
The  number  may  vary  by  one  day  from  year  to  year, 
and  astronomers  must  have  realized  that  the  correct 
length  of  a  season  was  not  a  whole  number  but  was 
fractional.  Probably  the  correct  length  was  found  by 
taking  a  large  number  of  observations,  and  taking  the 
mean.  The  following  table  shows  the  length  of  the 
seasons  and  of  the  year  as  found  by  ancient 
astronomers. 

*  The  mean  duration  of  ft  lunar  month  consists  of  29'530588 
days  and  twelve  such  lunations  amount  to  354'36706  days,  while  the 
length  of  a  tropical  solar  year  is  365'24220  days.  The  length  of  a 
lunar  year  thus  falls  short  of  the  solar  year  by  10.87514  days,  and 
instead  of  there  being  exactly  twelve  lunar  months  in  a  year,  there 
are  12.36837  months. 


THE  LUNI-SOLAR  AND  LUNAR  CALENDARS 


175 


3.2  MOON’S  SYNODIC  PERIOD  OR  LUNATION : 
EMPIRICAL  RELATION  BETWEEN  THE  YEAR 
AND  THE  MONTH 


Table  2. — Showing  the  length  of  seasons. 


Euctcmon 

Calippos 

Chaldean 

Correct 
values  for 

(432  B.C.) 

(370  B.C.) 

(200  B.C.) 

1384  B.C. 

days 

days 

days 

days 

Spring  93 

94 

94.50 

94.09 

Summer  90 

92 

92-73 

91-29 

Autumn  90 

89 

88-59 

88.58 

Winter  92 

90 

89-44 

91-29 

Total  •••  365 

365 

365.26 

365.25 

The  length  of  the  year  was  also  found  by  the  same 
method.  The  solar  year  is  the  period  between 
successive  transitions  of  the  sun  through  the  same 
cardinal  point.  Neugebauer  thinks  that  summer 
solstice  was  first  used  for  this  purpose  in  ancient 
times.  But  subsequently  evidences  are  found  of  the 
use  of  other  cardinal  points. 

Thus  we  find  that  during  the  classical  period  in 
Babylon,  the  solar  year  started  with  the  vernal 
equinox.  But  the  Macedonian  Greeks  and  the  Jews 
started  with  the  autumnal  equinox.  The  west 
European  countries  appear  to  have  started  the  solar 
year  with  the  winter  solstice. 

The  number  of  days  in  a  solar  year  would  vary 
between  365  and  366.  Probably  the  exact  length  was 
determined  by  counting  the  number  of  days  between  the 
year-beginnings  separated  by  a  large  number  of  years 
and  taking  the  mean.  The  Indian  practice,  followed  ip 
the  Siddhantas ,  is  to  give  the  number  of  days  in  a 
Kalpa  (a  period  of  4.32  x  10®  years)  from  which  one 
can  find  out  the  number  of  days  in  a  year  by  simple 
division.  This  appears  in  modern  times  to  be  a  rather 
cumbrous  practice,  but  is  probably  reminiscent  of 
taking  the  mean  for  a  large  number  of  years. 

In  ancient  times,  people  had  not  learnt  to  follow 
the  motion  of  the  sun  in  the  starry  heavens,  so  they 
were  unaware  of  the  difference  between  the  .sidereal 
year  and  the  tropical  year.  But  from  their  method  of 
measurement,  they  unconsciously  chose  the  correct,  or 
the  tropical  year. 

Modern  measurements  show  that  the  length  of  the 
tropical  year  is  not  constant,  but  is  slowly  varying. 
It  is  becoming  shorter  at  the  rate  of  ’0001  days  or  8'6 
secs,  in  1600  years. 

So  that  in  Sumerian  times,  the  tropical  year  had 
a  length  of  365.2425  days.  The  present  length  is, 
365-2422  days. 


The  solar  year  has  thus  a  pretty  nearly  constant 
value,  but  even  the  earliest  astronomers  appear  to 
have  observed,  that  the  lunation,  or  the  synodic  period 
of  the  moon  is  not  a  constant,  but  is  variable.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  period  varies  from  29‘246  to  29.817 
days — nearly  fourteen  hours.  The  observation  of  the 
actual  motion  of  the  moon  formed  the  most  formidable 
problem  in  ancient,  astronomy  (vide  §4). 

But  all  ancient  nations  show  knowledge  of  an 
astonishingly  correct  value  of  the  mean  synodic  period , 
which  is  known  to  be  29.530588  days.  This  is  probably 
because  they  could  count  the  number  of  days  with 
fractions  comprising  a  very  large  number  of  lunations, 
and  therefore  the  mean  value  came  out  to  be  very 
correct. 

With  the  aid  of  the  knowledge  of  correct  values  of 
the  length  of  the  tropical  year,  and  of  the  mean 
synodic  period  of  the  moon,  it  is  possible  to  find  out 
correct  rules  for  luni-solar  adjustment,  as  narrated 
below.  But  this  could  happen  only  at  a  later  stage. 
The  first  stage  was  certainly  empirical  as  is  clearly 
indicated  from  a  record  of  the  great  Babylonian  king 
and  law-giver  Hammurabi  (1800  B.  C.),  which  says  that 
the  thirteenth  month  was  proclaimed  by  royal  order 
throughout  the  empire  on  the  advice  of  priests.  All 
religious  observances  were  forbidden  during  this 
period.* 

It  is  not  known  however,  what  principles,  if  any, 
guided  the  king  or  rather  his  advisers  in  their  selection 
of  the  thirteenth  month,  but  most  probably  the 
adjustment  was  empirical,  i.e.,  the  month  was  discarded 
when  the  priests  found  ‘from  actual  experience  that 
the  festival  was  going  out  of  season.  Many  ancient 
nations  who  used  the  luni-solar  calendar,  do  not 
appear  to  have  gone  beyond  the  empirical  stage. 

Empirical  Relations  between  the  Solar  and  Lunar 
Periods  :  The  Intercalary  Months. 

The  Chaldean  astronomers  (as  the  Babylonians 
were  called  after  600  B.C.)  appear  to  have  striven 
incessantly  to  obtain  very  accurate  values  for  the 
mean  lunation  and  the  length  of  the  solar  •  year,  and 

*  It  is  said  that  in  ancient  Palestine,  the  custom  was  that  the 
Rabbis  went  to  the  fields  and  watched  the  time  by  their  calendar  for 
the  ripening  of  wheat.  If  the  lunar  month  of  Addaru  (last  month  of 
the  year)  fell  back  too  much  towards  winter,  they  would  proclaim  a 
second  Addaru  in  that  year,  so  that  the  first  of  Nisan  would  Coincide 
roughly  with,  the  ripening  pf  wheat 


REPORT  OF  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


176 

work  out  at  the  discovery  of  mathematical  relation* 
ships  between  these  two  periods  having  the  form — 

m  lunar  months  =«  solar  years 
where  both  m  and  n  axe  integers. 

Let  us  describe  some  of  these  relations. 

The  (Jctaeteris  :  This  depends  on  the  relation  : 

8  tropical  years  =*=2921 .94  days 
99  lunar  months  =  2923.53  days. 

The  difference  is  only  1.59  days  in  8  years.  We 
have  used  here  the  correct  lengths,  of  the  two  periods. 
The  Babylonian  values  were  slightly  different. 

According  to  this  relation,  there  were  to  be  three 
extra  or  intercalary  months  ih  a  period  of  8  years,  and 
festivals  would  fall  approximately  in  the  right  seasons, 
if  these  three  months  were  suitably  excluded  for 
religious  observances.  But  the  rule  was  only  approxi¬ 
mate.  In  a  few  cycles,  the  discrepancy  would  be  too 
large  to  be  disregarded. 

According  to  the  celebrated  exponent  of  Baby¬ 
lonian  astronomy,  Father  Kugler,  this  system  was  in 
vogue  from  528  B.C.  to  505  B.C.,  then  there  was  an 
interval  when  they  used  to  have  10  intercalary  months 
in  a  period  of  27  years.  From  383  B.C.,  the  Chaldeans 
used  the  19,-year  cycle,  based  on  the  relation  : 

19  solar  years  =6939.60  days 
235  lunar  months =6939.69  days. 

There  is  a  discrepancy  of  .09  days  in  19  years,  or  a 
mistake  of  1  day  in  210  years. 

The  19-year  cycle,  with  7  intercalary  months  was 
used  throughout  the  whole  Seleucid  times  (313  B.C.— 
75  B.C.),  as  shown  by  Pannekoek.  This  system  has 
not  been  superseded  inspite  of  various  attempts. 

These  rules  came  into  vogue  at  a  time  (383  B.C.), 
when  Babylon  had  lost  her  independence  and  became 
a  vassal  state  of  the  Persian  empire  of  the  Acheminids. 
We  do  not  know  what  was  the  original  calendar  of 
pre-Acheminid  Persia,  but  the  great  Acheminid 
emperdr  Darius  preferred  the  simpler  Egyptian  solar 
calendar  to  theqyjmplex  luni-solar  calendar  of  Babylon. 
The  population  of  ^Wpylon  could  no  longer  depend 
upon  the  king  to  adjust  the  dates  of  their  religious 
observances  by  royal  decree,  as  happened  in  the  time 
of  Hammurabi  (1800  B.C.).  Probably  therefore  the 
priest-astronomers  felt  the  need  of  mathematical  rules 
which  should  take  the  place  of  royal  decrees. 


Table  3. — The  19-year  cycle. 

Cycle  of  19  years  showing  Intercalary  Months 

(Compiled  from  Pannekoek’s  calculation  of  dates 
in  Babylonian  Tables  of  planets) 


Year  in  the 

Total  no.  of 

Years  of  the 

19-year  cycle 

days 

Seleucidean  Era 

1* 

384 

134  153  172  191  210  229 

2 

354 

135  154  173  192  211  230 

3 

355 

136  155  174  193  212  231 

4* 

384 

137  156  175  194  213  232 

5 

355 

138  157  176  195  214  233 

6 

354 

139  158  177  196  215  234 

7* 

384 

140  159  178  197  216  235 

8 

354 

141  160  179  198  217  236 

9* 

384 

142  161  180  199  218  237 

10 

355 

143  162  181  200  219  238 

11 

354 

144  163  182  201 .220  239 

12* 

384 

145  164  183  202  221  240 

13 

355 

146  165  184  203  222  241 

14 

354 

147  166  185  204  223  242 

15* 

384 

148  167  186  205  224  243 

16 

354 

149  168  187  206  225  244 

17 

355 

150  169  188  207  226  245 

I8f 

383 

151  170  189  2C8  227  246 

19 

354 

152  171  190  209  228  247 

Total 

6940 

N.  B.  Years 

marked  * 

have  a  second  Addaru, 

and  years  marked  t  have  a  second  Ululu. 

312  — Seleucidean  era  =  Christian  era  B.C. 

(Jan.  to  Sept.) 

Seleucidean  era  — 311=  Christian  era  A.D. 

(Jan.  to  Sept.) 

The  ‘Nineteen-year  cycle'  is  generally  known  as 
the  ‘Metonic  Cycle'  after  Meton,  an  Athenian 
astronomer  who  unsuccessfully  tried  to  introduce  it 
at  Athens  in  432  B.C.  But  there  is  no  proof  that  it 
was  used  at  Athens  before  343  B.C.  The  question  of 
‘priority’  of  this  discovery  is  therefore  a  disputed  one. 

3.3  THE  LUNI-SOLAR  CALENDARS  OF  THE  BABY¬ 
LONIANS,  THE  MACEDONIANS,  THE  ROMANS, 

AND  THE  JEWS 

In  addition  to  the  Chaldeans,  many  other  nations 
of  antiquity,  viz.,  the  Vedic  Indians,  the  Greeks,  the 
Romans  and  the  Jews  and  others  used  the  luni-solar 
calendar,  and  had  to  make  luni-solar  adjustments. 
It  will  be  tedious  to  relate  how  they  did  it,  except 
in  the  case  of  the  Vedic  Indians  ( vide  §  5).  But  the 
knowledge  of  the  nineteen-year  rule  appears  to  have 
diffused  to  all  countries  by  the  first  century  of  the 
Christian  era.  From  this  time  onwards,  the  lunar 
months  of  different  nations  appear  to  be  interchange¬ 
able.  This  is  shown  in  the  following  Table  No.  4. 

We  have  almost  complete  knowledge  of  the  luni- 
solar  calendars  of  the  Babylonians  during  Seleucid 
times.  The  names  of  months  with  their  normal  lengths 
are  shown  in  column  (2)  of  the  table. 


THE  LUNI-SOLAE  AND  LUNAR  CALENDARS 


177 


Table  4. — Corresponding  Lunar  months. 

Lunar  Month-Names 


(1) 

(2) 

(3) 

(4) 

Indian 

Chaldean 

Macedonian 

Jewish 

CAITRA 

.Addaru 

Xanthicos 

Vaisakha 

NISANNU 

(30)  Artemesios 

Nissan 

Jyai?tha 

Airu 

(29)  Daisios 

Iyyar 

A$Sdha 

Sivannu 

(30)  Panemos 

Sivan 

Sravaija 

Duzu 

(29)  Loios 

Tammuz 

Bhadra 

Abu 

(30)  Gorpiaios 

Ab 

Asvina 

Ululu 

(29)  Hyperberetrios  Ellul 

Kartika  Tasritu 

MSrga&Ir§a  Arah 

(30)  DIOS 

TISHRI 

Samnah 

(29)  Appelaios 

Marheshvan 

Pau§a 

Kisilibu 

(30)  Audynaios 

Kislev 

Magha 

Dhabitu 

(29)  Peritios 

Tebeth 

Phalguna 

Shabat 

(30)  Dystros 

Shebat 

Caitra 

Addaru 

(29)  Xanthicos 

Adar  and 
Veadar 

The  first  Babylonian  month  Nisannu,  started  with 
30  days,  and  other  months  were  alternately  29  and  30 
days.  A  normal  year  thus  consisted  of  354  days,  but 
occasionally  an  extra' day  was  added  to  the  last  month, 
and  it  became  a  year  of  355  days. 

The  effect  of  these  intercalations  was  that  the  first 
month,  viz.,  the  month  of  Nisannu,  never  strayed  for 
more  than  30  days  beyond  the  day  of  vernal  equinox. 

As  the  table  shows,  the  Babylonian  year  might  be 
of  354,  355,  383,  or  384  days’  duration,  and  occasio¬ 
nally  it  is  said  that  they  extended  to  385  days.  It 
was  therefore  impossible  to  calculate  the  number  of 
days  between  two  incidents,  dated  according  to  the 
Chaldean  calendar,  unless  the  investigator  had  a  table 
of  past  years  showing  the  lengths  of  each  individual 
year.  Herein  comes  the  superiority  of  the  Egyptian 
system,  where  the  number  of  days  between  two 
incidents,  dated  according  to  the  Egyptian  system, 
could  be  easily  calculated.  The  two  greatest  astro¬ 
nomers  of  ancient  times,  Hipparchos  and  Ptolemy, 
therefore,  preferred  the  Egyptian  system  of  dating  to 
the  Chaldean  or  the  Macedonian. 

The  Macedonian  Greeks  used  the  months  given 
in  column  (3)  in  their  home  land.  When  they  settled 
in  Babylon  as  rulers  (313  B.C.),  they  continued  to  use 
the  same  months,  but  got  them  linked  to  Chaldean 
months.  Their  first  month  was  Dios,  which  was 
the  seventh  month  of  Chaldeans.  This  was  probably 
linked  to  the  autumnal^  %puinox  in  the  same  way  as 
Nisannu  was  to  the  vernal  equinox.  The  Macedonian 
year  started  six  months  earlier  than  the  Chaldean  year. 

The  .Macedonian^  months  were  used  by  the 
P&rthians,  the  early  Sakas,  and  the  Kushans  in  India 
wihout  change  of  name  {vide  §  5*5),  and  probably  the 


month-lengths  were  also  the  same  as  in  the  Chaldean 
19-year  system.  When  the  Sakas  and  Kushans  began 
to  rule  in  India,  from  first  century  B.C.,  they  used 
the  Macedonian  months  alternatively  with-  the  Indian 
months  which  are  shown  in  the  first  column^  The  first 
Indian  season,  Spring,  however  according  to  imme¬ 
morial  Indian  custom,  has  been  on  both  sides  of  the 
vernal  equinox  ( — 30°  to  30°),  while  in  the  Graeco- 
Chaldean  system,  the  Spring  started  with  vernal 
equinox  (0°).  The  first  Indian  month  is  Caitra,  the 
first  of  the  spring  months,  and  according  to  rules 
prevalent  in  Siddhantic  times  (300  A.D.).  the  month 
was  to  be  always  on  the  lower  side  of  the  vernal 
equinox,  i.e.,  the  beginning  of  lunar  Caitra  was  to  be  on 
a  date  before  the  vernal  equinox.  It  may  be  added  that 
the  Indian  lunar  months  mentioned  here  are  amanta 
or  new  moon  ending. 

8.4  THE  INTRODUCTION  OF  THE  ERA 

For  accurate  date-recording,  we  require  besides 
the  month  and  the  day,  also  a  continuously  running 
era.  But  the  era  came  rather  late  in  human  history. 
We  find  dated  records  of  kings  in  Babylon  from  about 
1700  B.C.  (Kassite  kings).  They  used  regnal  years, 
lunar  months,  and  the  day  of  the  lunar  month.  The 
ancient  Egyptian  records  do  not  use  any  era,  but 
sometimes  the  regnal  years.  But  the  use  of  regnal 
years  is  very  inconvenient  for  purposes  of  exact 
chronology,  because  one  has  to  locate  the  beginning 
of  the  reign  of  the  king  on  the  time-scale  which  often 
proves  to  be  an  extremely  difficult  problem,  e.g.,  in 
India,  Emperor  Asoke  used  regnal  years,  but  it  is  a 
problem  of  nearly  hundred  years  for  archaeologists 
to  find  out  the  exact  date  of  the  commencement  of 
his  reign.  This  varies  from  273  B,C.  to  264  B.C. 

In  the  writings  of  the  Greek  astronomers  Hippar¬ 
chos  (140  B.C.)  and  Ptolemy  (150  A.D.),  we  come  across 
an  era  purporting  to  date  from  the  time  of  one  king 
Nabu  Nazir  of  Babylon  (747  B.C.),  who  -is  known  to 
history,  though  this  era  is  not  used  in  records  of  the 
Babylonian  kings  themselves. 

The  inference  has  been  made,  though  without 
clear  proof,  that  the  Babylonian  or  rather  Chaldean 
astronomers  who  were  the  earliest  systematic  observers 
of  the  heavenly  bodies,  get  tired  of  the  use  of  the 
regnal  years,  and  felt  the  need  of  a  continuously 
running  era  for  precision  in  time-reckoning.  They 
took  advantage  of  a  unique  gathering  of  planets  about 
Feb.  26,  747  B.C.  when  Nabu  Nazir  was  reigning  in 
Babylon  to  proclaim  that  the  gods  have  ordained  the" 
‘introduction  of  a  continuously  running  era’  (  Sky  tmd 
Telescope,  Vol.  I,  p.  9,  April,  1942). 

But  the  use  of  the  Nabonassar  era  appears  to*  have 
been  confined  to  astronomers.  The  kings  continued 


REPORT  OP  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


ua- 

to  fccord  events  in  their  regnal  years  as  this  had 
a  great  propaganda  value  for  the  royal  family  which 
they  were  unwilling  to  forego. 

It  is  now'  known  that  the  other  ancient  eras,  like 
that  of  the  Greek  Olympiads  (776  B.C.)  or  the  era  of 
Foundation  of  Rome  (753  B.C.)  are  extrapolated  eras. 
The  ancient  Greek  method  of  dating  by  Olympiads  is 
of  uncertain  origin,  but  the  system  was  critically 
examined  by  the  Alexandrian  chronologists,  parti¬ 
cularly  Eratosthenes  (3rd  century  B.C.),  the  founder  of, 
scientific  chronology.  According  to  the  Encyclopaedia 
Britannica,  14th  edition,  Greek  chronology  is  not 
reliable  till  the  50th  Olympiad  (i.e.  576  B.C.).  The 
era  was  therefore  invented  a  long  time  after  its  alleged 
year  of  starting.  The  era  of  the  Foundation  of  Rome 
had  a  similar  history  (see  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  14th 
edition.  Chronology).  The  starting  years  of  these  eras 
are  suspiciously  close  to  that  of  the  Nabonassar  era 
(747  B.C.).  Probably  both  these  eras  were  plagiarized 
from  the  era  of  Nabonassar  after  the  savants  of 
ancient  Greece  and  Rome  acquired  the  time-sense. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  Hipparchos  and  Ptolemy  used 
neither  the  era  of  Olympiads  nor  the  era  of  Foundation 
of  Rome,  nor  Greek  or  Chaldean  months  which  were 
lunar,  but  the  Nabonassar  era  and  the  more  con¬ 
venient  Egyptian  solar  months.  They  preferred 
science  to  nationalistic  chauvinism. 

The  Seleucidean  and  other  derived  Eras 

The  Seleucidean  Era  ( the  S.  E.  era)  :  The  first 
continuously  running  era  which  ran  into  general 
Circulation  is  that  introduced  to  commemorate  the 
foundation  of  Seleucus’s  dynasty  and  dates  from  the 
year  when  Seleucus  occupied  the  city  of  Babylon 
after  defeating  his  rivals.  There  were  two  methods 
of  counting,  differing  in  the  initial  year  and  the  first 
day  of  the  year. 

According  to  the  official  (Macedonian)  reckoning, 
the  era  started  from  the  lunar  month  of  Dios  (near 
autumnal  equinox)  in  the  year  ( — 311)  A.D.  or  312  B.C. 
The  months  had  Macedonian  names. 

According  to  the  native  Babylonian  reckoning,  the 
era  started  from  the  lunar  month  of  Nisan  (near 
vernal  equinox)  six  months  later  than  the  starting  of 
the  Macedonian  year.  The  months  had  Chaldean 
names,  as  given  in  Table  No.  4. 

„  The  Seleucid  monarchs  ruled  over  a  vast  empire 
from  Syria  to  the  bOMkrs  of  Afghanistan  from  311  B.C, 
to  65  B.C.  i.e.,  nearly  for  250  years  and  under  their 
rule,  the  knowledge  of  Graeco-Chaldean  astronomy 
and  time-calculations  spread  far  and  wide,  ultimately 
reacHipgJndia,  and  profoundly  modifying  the  indige¬ 
nous  system  in  India.  The  use  of  Macedonian  months 


spread  over  all  these  countries,  as  is  apparent,  from 
contemporary  inscriptions  and  coin-datings  mentioned 
in  §  5-5.  The  months  were  am&nta,  i.e.,  started  after 
the  new-moon  was  completed  and  were  pegged  on  to 
the  solar  year  which  started  on  the  day  of  the  vernal 
equinox.  The  Nisan  was  the  first  lunar  month  after 
the  vernal  equinox.  There  were  7  intercalary  months 
in  a  period  of  19  years.  The  correspondence  between' 
Chaldean  and  Greek  months  and  the  position  of  the 
intercalary  months  have  been  worked  out  by  Prof. 
Pannekoek  between  the  years  134-247  of  the  Seleuci¬ 
dean  era,  as  already  given  (vide  §  3-2  and  3-3)  along 
with  their  Indian  equivalent  lunar  months. 

The  Parthian  Era 

Since  the  introduction  of  the  Seleucidean  era,  the 
practice  arose  for  a  nation  or  a  dynasty  to  start  eras 
commemorating  some  great  event  in  their  national  or 
dynastic  life.  The  first  in  record  is  the  Parthian  era, 
and  the  story  of  its  starting  is  well-known.  The 
Seleucid  emperors  ruled  the  Near  East  from  312  B.C. 
imposing  on  the  countries  under  their  domination 
Greek  culture,  the  Seleucidean  era,  and  the  Graeco- 
Chaldean  system  of  time-reckoning.  About  250  B.C., 
there  were  wide-spread  revolts  against  Seleucid  rule  in 
Bactria,  in  Parthia  (Eastern  Persia),  and  other  parts 
of  the  Near  East.  The  revolt  in  Parthia  was  led  by 
one  Arsaces  and  his  brother  Tiridates  who  belonged 
to  an  Iranian  tribe,  which  had  adopted  Greek  culture. 
To  commemorate  their  liberation  from  Seleucidean 
rule,  the  Parthians  introduced  an  era,  beginning 
64  years  after  the  Seleucid  era  (i.e.  248  B.C.).  But 
at  first  this  era  (Arsacid  era)  was  only  rarely  used. 
The  early  Parthian  emperors  preferred  to  use  on 
their  coins  the  Seleucidean  era,  the  Macedonian 
months,  and  the  Graeco-Chaldean  system  of  time¬ 
reckoning  inscribed  in  Greek  letters.  In  the  first 
century  A.D.,  there  was  a  Zoroastrian  revival,  the 
S.E.  was  dropped  in  favour  of  the  Parthian  era  and 
Pehlevi  began  to  be  used  in  place  of  Greek,  though 
Macedonian  month-names  were  still  kept. 

Though  kings  bearing  Parthian  names  ruled  at 
Taxila  about  the  first  century  B.C.  to  first  century  A.D., 
e.g.,  king  Gondophernes,  no  clear  evidence  of  the 
use  of  the  Parthian  era  on  Indian  soil  has  yet 
been  found. 

It  is  very  likely  that  the  Saka  era,  with  its  methods 
of  calendar-reckoning,,  which  came  into  vogue  in 
India  during  the  Siddhdnta  Jyoti$a  times,  was  started 
by  the  Saka  tribes  when  they  attained  prominence, 
and  started  an  era  of  their  own,  in  imitation  of  the 
Parthians.  They,  however,  retained  the  Graeco- 
Chaldean  method  of  lunar  month-reckoning  and 
probably  the  same  system  of  intercalary  months. 


THE  LUNI-SOLAR  AND'LHMR  OStiENDAm 


3.5  THE  JEWISH  CALENDAR 

The  ancient  Jewish  calendar  was  lunar,  the 
beginning  of  the  month  being  determined  by  the  first 
visibility  of  the  lunar  crescent.  As  the  month-names 
show  (col.  4  of  the  table  No.  4  ),  they  were  evidently 
derived  from  the  Babylonian  month-names  excepting 
one  or  two,  viz.,  Marheshvan  and  Tammuz,  The  day 
began  in  the  evening  and  probably  at  sunset.  The  year 
used  to  begin  with  the  spring  month  Abib  or  Nisan, 
the  latter  being  the  Babylonian  name  of  the  month 
which  was  adopted  by  the  Jews  in  the  post-exilic 
times.  Intercalation  was  performed,  when  necessary, 
repeating  the  twelfth  month  'Adar’  which  was  then 
known  as  ‘Veadar’  followed  by  Adar.  The  year¬ 
beginning  was  subsequently  changed  and  in  the  last 
century  before  Christ,  it  became  the  month  of  Tishri, 
corresponding  to  the  Macedonian  month  of  Dios.  This 
must  have  been  due  to  the  desire  or  need  to  follow 
the  practice  of  the  ruling  race. 

Originally  there  were  no  definite  rules  for  inter¬ 
calation  and  for  fixing  up  the  beginning  of  the  months. 
Because  various  religious  festivals  and  sacrifices  were 
fixed  with  reference  to  the  beginning  of  the  month, 
information  about  it  was  spread  throughout  the 
country  by  messengers  and  by  signal  fires  on  hilltops. 

About  the  4th  century  A.D.,  fixed  rules  were 
introduced  in  the  calendar  and  nothing  was  left  to 
observation  or  discretion.  Intercalation  is  governed 
by  a  19-year  cycle  in  which  the  3rd,  6th,  8th,  11th, 
14th,  17th  and  19th  years  have  got  an  extra  month. 
The- actual  beginning  of  the  initial  month  of  the  year, 
viz.,  Tishri  is  obtained  from  the  mean  new-moon  by 
complicated  rules  which  are  designed  to  present 
certain  solemn  days  from  falling  on  inconvenient 
days  of  the  week.  As  a  result,  a  common  yearTnay 
consist  of  353,  354  or  355  days  and  an  embolismic  or 
leap-year  of  383,  384  or  385  days.  Ten  of  the  months 
have  got  fixed  durations  of  29  or  30  days,  as  well  as 
the  intercalary  month  which  contains  30  days,  the 
other  two  varying  according  to  the  requisite  length 
of  the  year. 

The  Jewish  Era  of  Creation 

The  Jews  use  an  Era  ( Anno  Mundi,  litn-iath  olum ) 
or  ‘Era  of  Creation’  which  is  supposed  to  have  been 
started  from  the  day  of  creation  of  the  world.  We 
quote'  the  following  passages  from  Encyclopaedia 
Britannica,  14th  edition,  'Chronology,  Jetoish’. 

(l)  The  era  is  supposed  to  begin,  according  to  the 
mnemonic  Beharad,  at  the  beginning  of  the  lunar  cycle  on 
the  night  between  Sunday  and  Monday,  Oct.  7,  3761  B.O., 
at  11  hours  11$  minutes  P.M.  This  is  indicated  by  be  (beth, 


179' 

two,  i.e.,  2nd  day  of  week),  ha  (he,  five,  i.e.,  fifth  hour  after 
sunset)  and  Bad  (Besh,- dalet,  204  minims  after  the  hour). 

(2)  In  the  Bible  various  eras  occur,  e.g.,  the  Flood,  the 
Exodus,  the  Earthquake  in  the  days  of  Ring  Uzziah,  the 
regnal  years  of  monarchs  and  the  Babylonian  exile.  During 
the  exile  and  after,  Jews  reckoned  by  the  years  of  the 
Persian  kings.  Such  reckonings  occur  not  only  in  the  Bible 
(e.g.,  Daniel  viii,  I)  but  also  in  the  Assouan  papyri.  After 
Alexander,  the  Jews  employed  the  Seleucid  era  (called 
Minyan  Shetaroth,  or  era  of  deeds,  since  legal  deeds  were 
dated  by  this  era).  •  So  great  was  the  influence  exerted  by 
Alexander,  that  this  era  persisted  in  the  East  till  the  16th 
century,  and  is  still  not  extinct  in  south  Arabia.  This  is  the 
only  era  of  antiquity  that  has  survived.  Others,  which  fell 
into  disuse,  were  the  Maccabaean  eras,  dating  from  the 
accession  of  each  prince,  and  the  national  era  (143-142  B.G.), 
when  Judsea  became  free  under  Simon.  That  the  era 
described  in  Jubilees  was  other  than  hypothetical,  is 
probable.  Dates  have  also  been  reckoned  from  the  fall  of 
the  second  Temple  (Le-Horban  hab-bayyith).  The  equation 
of  the  eras  is  as  follows  : 

Year  1  after  destruction  =  A.M.  3831 

=  383  Seleucid 
=  A.D.  71 

The  ‘Era  of  Creation’  is  supposed  to  have  started 
from  the  day  of  autumnal  equinox  of  the  year  376iB.C. 
So  the  sun  and  the  moon  must  have  existed  before  the 
day  of  creation  !! 


3.6  THE  ISLAMIC  CALENDAR 

The  Mohammedan  calendar  is  purely  lunar  and 
has  no  connection  with  the  solar  year.  The  year 
consists  of  12  lunar  months,  the  beginning  of  each 
month  being  determined  by  the  first  observation  of  the 
crescent  moon  in  the  evening  sky.  The  months  have 
accordingly  got  29  or  30  days  and  the  year  354  or  355 
days.  The  new-year  day  of  the  Mohammedan  calendar 
thus  retrogrades  through  the  seasons  and  completes 
the  cycle  in  a  period  of  about  32$  solar  years. 

The  era  of  the  Mohammedan  calendar,  viz.,  the 
Hejira  (A.H.),  which  was  probably  introduced  by  the 
Caliph  Umar  about  638-639  A.D.,  started  from  the 
evening  of  622  A.D.,  July  15,  Thursday*,  when  the 
crescent  moon  of  the  first  month  Muharram  of 
the  Mohammedan  calendar  was  first  visible.  This 
was  the  new-year  day  preceding  the  emigration 
of  Muhammad  from  Mecca  which  took  place  about 
Sept.  20  (8  Rabi  I),  622  A  D. 


*As  the  day  of  the  Islamic  calendar  commences  from  sunset, 
Friday  started  from  the  evening  of  that  day. 


C.  R.-31 


180 


EEPOBT  OF  TfiE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


For  astronomical  and  chronological  purposes  the 
lengths  of  the  months  are  however  fixed  by  rule  and 
not  by  observation.  The  lengths  of  the  months  in  days 
for  this  purpose  are  as  follows  : 


Muharram 

. 30  . 

Safar 

. 29 

Rabi-ul  awwal 

......30 

Rabi-us  sani 

. 29 

Jamada'l  awwal 

. 30 

Jamada-s  sani 

......29 

Rajab 

. 30 

Shaban 

. 29 

Ramadan 

. 30 

Shawal 

.....'.29 

Zilkada 

. 30 

Zilhijja 

. 29  (or 

The  leap-year,  in  which  Zilhijja  has  one  day  more, 
contains  355  days  and  is  known  as  Kabishah.  In  a  cycle 
of  30  years,  there  are  19  common  years  of  354  days  and 
11  leap-years  of  355  days.  Thus  360  lunations  are  made 
equivalent  to  10,631  days  or  only  012  days  less  than 
its  actual  duration.  The  rule  for  determining  the  leap- 
year  of  this  fixed  calendar  is  that,  if  after  dividing  the 
Hejira  year  by  30.  the  remainder  is  2,  5,  7,  10,  13,  16, 
18,  21/24,  26  or  29,  then  it  is  a  leap-year. 

The  only  purely  lunar  calendar  is  the  ‘Islamic 
Calendar',  which  has-  been  in  .vogue  amongst  the 
followers  of  Islarti  since  the  death  of  the  Prophet 
Muhammad  (632  A.D.).  But  it  is  well-known  that 
before  this  period  Mecca  observed  some  kind  of  luni- 
solar  calendar  in  common  with  all  countries  of  the 
Near  East.  The  common  story  is  that  when  pilgrims 
from  distant  countries  and  other  parts  of  Arabia  came 
to  perform  Hajj  at  Mecca  (Hajj  is  a  pret-Islamic 
practice),  they  often  found  that  it  was  an  intercalary 
month  according  to  Meccan  calculation,  when  no 
religious  festival  could  be  performed,  and  had  to  wait 
for  a  tnojith  before  they  were  allowed  to  perform  the 
rites.  This  meant  great  hardships  for  distant  visitors 
and  to  prevent  recurrence  of  such  incidents  the 
Prophet  forbade  the  use  of  intercalary  or  13th  month 
and  decreed  that  the  calendar  should  henceforth  be 
purely  lunar. 


It  has  now  been  shown  by  Dr.  Hashim  Amir  Ali  of 
the  Osmania  University,  Hyderabad,  that  the  Moha¬ 
mmedan  calendar  was  originally  luni-solar  in  which 
intercalation  was  made  when  necessary,  and  not 
purely  lunar.  This  view-point  has  now  been  strongly 
supported  by  Mohammed  Ajmal  Khan  of  the  Ministry 
of  Education,  Govt,  of  India.  They  emphasize  that 
upto  the  last  year  of  the  life  of  Mohammed,  i.e.,  upto 
A.H.  10  or  A.D.  632,  a  thirteenth  month  was  inter¬ 
calated  when  necessary.  The  Arabs,  among  whom 
there  were  relatively  few  men  conversant  with  astro¬ 
nomical  calculations,  had  a  system  in  which  a  family 
of  astronomers,  known  as  Qalammas  was  responsible 
for  proclaiming  at  the  Hajj  (falling  in  the  last  month 
of  the  year  :  Zilhijja)  that  a  thirteenth  month  would  or 
would  not  be  added.  Astronomically  such  intercala¬ 
tion  should  be  made  3  times  in  8  years  or  7  times  in  19 
years.  The  elder  of  the  Qalamma  had  a  certain  amount 
of  discretion  in  determining  when  this  intercalation 
was  to  be  practised,  and  this  very  practice  afterwards 
caused  great  confusion. 

According  to  this  view,  proper  intercalation  was 
applied  in  all  the  years  where  necessary  upto  A.H.  10 
and  consequently  the  year  A.H.  11  (coming  next  to 
the  Hajj  of  A.H.  10)  which  started  on  March  29,  632 
A.D.  (i.e.,  after  the  vernal  equinox  day)  seems  to  have 
befen  a  rather  normal  year,  and  as  such  all  the  previous 
new-year  days  appear  to  have  been  celebrated  on  the 
visibility  of  the  crescent  moon  after  the  vernal  equinox 
day.  The  Muslim  months  should  accordingly  occupy 
permanent  places  in  the  seasons  as  follows*  : — 
■Muharram...  Mar. — April  Rajab  ...Sept. — Oct- 

Safar . April — May  Shaban  ...Oct. — Nov. 

Rabi  I  ...May — June  Ramadan  ...Nov. — Dec. 

Rabi  II  ...June  — July  Shawal  ...Dec. — Jan. 

Jamadi  I  ...July  — Aug.  Zilkada  ...Jan. —Feb. 

Jamadi  II  ...  Aug. —Sept.  Zilhijja  ...Feb. — Mar. 

*  If  this  view  is  accepted,  it  would  then  be  necessary  to  shift  the 
starting  epoch  of  the  Hejira  era,  which  is  commonly  accepted  as  July 
16,  622  A.D.,  to  an  earlier  date,  as  4  intercalary  months  or  118  days 
will  then  have  to  be  inserted  between  the  new-year  days  of  A.H.  1  and 
of  A.H.  11,  which  is  March  29,  632  A.D.  The  initial  epoch  of  the 
Hejira  era  thus  arrived  at  is  the  evening  of  March  19,  622  A.D., 
Friday,  the  day  following  the  vernal  equinox. 


CHAPTER  IV 

Calend&ric  Astronomy 


4.1  THE  MOON’S  MOVEMENT  IN  THE  SKY 

The  scheme  of  lunar  months  given  in  Table  No.  4 
in  a  nineteen-year  period,  which  came  into  vogue  in 
Babylon  about  383  B.C.  did  not,  however,  completely 
satisfy  the  needs  of  the  Babylonian  calendar,  because 
for  religious  purposes,  the  month  was  to  start  on  the 
day  the  crescent  moon  was  first  visible  in  the  western 
horizon  after  conjunction  with  the  sun  (the  new- 


and  the  moon  move  uniformly  in  the  same  great 
circle '  in  the  heavens.  But  even  the  most  primitive 
observers  could  not  fail  to  notice  that  neither  do  the 
two  luminaries -move  in  the  same  path,  nor  do -they 
move  uniformly,  each  in  its  own  path. 

The  motion  of  the  moon  amongst  the  stars  is  the 
easiest  to  observe.  This  is  illustrated  in  the  two 
figures  reproduced  from  the  Sky  and  Telescope,  giving 


f>-  •  4  I  s  SUN  Vi  v,N 


y 


o  • 


"  <  ■  ■ 


»  c 


5 


.  ;  oioi. 

<  - 

i 

•  -  - 


MEBCURV  ▼  VENUS  ■  | 

MARS  A  JUPITER* 
Saturn  A  uRanus  #u 

rsiF  »'»  T v.jfsiE.  #N  PLUTO  #P 


Fig.  2— Showing  the  positions  of  the  sun,  moon  and  planets  among  the  stars  in  June,  1953. 
moon),  a  custom  which  is  still  followed  in  the  Islamic  positions  of  the  moon,  the  sun,  and  the  planets  in  the* 

countries.  But  the  first  visibility  may  not  occur  on  field  of  fixed  stars  in  the  months  of  June  and  July,* 

the  predicted  day  for  manifold  reasons.  1953. 


V  vi  ?  ’  •  ■ 

’•  *  aus  4  i'.  '  f’u  a 

■  •  —  ,  ft  URA-,...,  0 


Fig.  3 — Showing  the  positions  of  the  sun,  moon  and  planets  among  the  stars  in  July,  1953. 

The  table  given  on  p.  176  is  based  on  mean  values  The  central  horizontal  line  is  the  line  of  the 

of  the  lengths  of  the  year  and  the  synodic  month,  celestial  equator  (§  4.4),  and  the  sinuous  line  represents 

which  is  equivalent  to  the  assumption  that  the  sun  the  ecliptic  or  th^  sun’s  path  (§  4.5),  but  we  unay 


182 


EEPOET  OE  THE  CALENDAE  EEEOEM  COMMITTEE 


ignore  these  now,  and  simply  concentrate  on  the 
moon  and  the  stars  or  star-clusters  near  which  it 
passes. 

The  moon  begins  as  a  thin  crescent  on  the  western 
horizon  on  the  evening  of  June  12,  the  day  of  the1  first 
visibility  after  the  new-moon,  at  an  angle  of  11°,  from 
the  sun  which  has  just  set,  below  the  bright  stars 
CastOr  and  Pollux  ( Punarvasu ).  Then  we  notice  the 
position  of  the  moon  on  successive  evenings  at  sunset.- 
We  find  she  is  moving  eastward  at  the  rate  of  about 
13°  and  becoming  fuller  (increasing  in  phase).  She 
passes  the  bright  star  Regulus  ( Maghd. )  on  the  17th,  on 
the  19th,  she  is  half  and  passes  /3  Leonis  (Uttara 
Phalguni)  leaving  it  a  good  deal  to  the  north.  Then  she 
passes  the  bright  star  Spica  (  a  Virginis  or  Citra)  on  the 
21st,  and  is  then  gibbous  on  the  23rd  near  the  star 
a-lAbra  ( Visakha ).  Then  she  passes  the  well  known 
Scorpion-cluster  and  becomes  full  on  the  27th,  near 
a  star-cluster  which  cannot  be  seen  on  the  night  of 
full-moon,  but  can  be  detected  later  as  the  star  cluster 
Sagittarius.  On  the  full  moon  day,  she  rises  nearly 
at  sunset,  at  180°  from  the  sun  (opposition).  On  each 
successive  night  after  full  moon  she  rises  later  and 
later,  and  passes  the  phases  in  the  reverse  order,  i.e., 
becomes  gibbous  on  June  30,  when  she  has  the  bright 
star  Altair  (8 ravana)  far  to  the  north  and  is  half  on 
July  4,  and  becomes  a  crescent  on  July  7  on  the  eastern 
sky,  and  then  fails  to  appear  for  three  days,  and  must 
have  passed  the  sun  on  the  11th  July  'frhich  is  the  new. 
moon  day,  when  she  is  with  the  sun  (dmarasyd  or 
conjunction,  lit.  the  sun  and  the  moon  living  together). 
On  the  12th  July,  she  reappears  on  the  western 
horizon  as  a  thin  crescent,  near  the  star  o-Cancri 
(Pusya),  and  the  cycle  again  starts. 

The  crescent  of  the  moon,  either  in  the  western  or 
the  eastern  sky,  is  always  turned  away  from  the  sun. 

The  ancients  must  have  observed  the  motion  of  the 
moon  day  after  day,  from  new-moon  to  new-moon 
(a  full  lunation  or  lunar  month)  and  become  familiar 
with  the  stars  or  star-clusters  which  she  passes.  It  is 
always  easy  to  observe  them  when  the  moon  is  a 
crescent  ;  when  the  moon  becomes  fuller,  the  stars  are 
lost  in  the  moon’s  glare  particularly  if  they  are  faint. 
But  if  observations  be  carried  on  for  a  number  of 
years,  the  observers  would  become  familiar  with  all 
the  stars  or  star-clusters  which  the  moon  passes. 

By.  observations  like  this,  \ he  ancients  must  have 
found  that  botk  the  moon  and  the  sun  are  moving  to 
the.  east,  the  moon'tf&y  fast,  the  sun.  more  slowly.  By 
the  time  the  moon,  after  making  a  whole  round,  comes 
back  to  the  sun,  the  latter  has  moved  further  to  the 
east  by  about  30°.  For  example  in  the  above  figures 
Nos.  2  and  3,  the  sun  was  somewhat  to  the  west  of  the 


bright  star-group  Orionis  ( Mfgakiras)  to  the  west  of 
Castor  and  Pollux  on  June  11th,  the  day  of  the  new- 
mQOn.  But  on  the  next  new-moon  day,  July  11th,  she 
has  moved  near  Castor  and  Pollux  ( Punarvasu )  about 
30°  to.the  east. 

The  ancients  must  have  found  that  the  moon  takes 
a  little  over  27.3  days  (sidereal  period  of  the  moon), 
to  return  to  the  same  star,  but  to  overtake  the 
sun,  it  takes  a  little  longer,  a  little  over  29.5  days 
(the  synodic  period  of  the  moon).  Exactly, 

the  mean  sidereal  period  =  27.321661  days 

=27d  7h  43“  119.5 
with  a  variation  of  ±  3$  hours 
and  the  mean  synodic  period  =  29530588  days 

=29d  12h  44“  2s. 
with  a  variation  of  ±7  hours. 

The  Lunar  Mansions  : 

Many  ancient  nations  developed  the  habit  of 
designating  the  day-to-day  (or  night-to-night)  position 
of  the  moon  by  the  stars  or  star-clusters  it  passed  on 
successive  nights.  The  number  of  such  stars  or  star- 
clusters  was  either  27  or  28  ;  the  ambiguity  was  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  mean  sidereal  period  of  the  moon 
is  about  27$  days,  the  actual  period  having  a  variation 
of  seven  hours,  and  the  ancients  who  did  not  know  how 
to  deal  with  fractions,  oscillated  between  27  and  28.  In 
India,  originally  there  were  28  nak$atras,  but  ultimately 
27  was  accepted  as  the  number  of  lunar  nak$alras 
(or  asterisms). 

The  lunar  zodiac  is  also  found  amongst  the  Chinese 
who  designate  them  by  the  term  Hsiu  ;  and  amongst  the 
Arabs,  who  call  them  Manzil ,  both  terms  denoting  man¬ 
sions.  Both  the  Chinese  and  the  Arabs  had  28  mansions. 
The  Indian  term  ‘ nakqatra '  is  of  uncertain  etymological 
origin.  Some  hold  that  the  term  nak$atra  carried  the 
sense  that  ‘it  does  not  move’  and  meant  a  star. 

Names  of  certain  'nah$atras’  are  found  in  the 
oldest  scriptures  of  India,  viz.,  the  Rg-Vedas,  but  a  full 
list  is  first  found  in  the  Yajurveda  (vide  §  5-3).  In 
the  older  classics  of  India  (  the  Yajurveda,  the 
Mahdbhdrata),  the  nak$atras  invariably  start  with 
Kritikd,  the  Pleiades  ;  the  supposition  has  been  made 
that  the  Krltikds  were  near  the  vernal  point,  when 
this  enumeration  was  started.  This  is  apparent  from 
the  couplet  found  in  the  Taittiriya  Brahmana  which 
runs  thus : 

Taittiriya  Brahmana,  i,  1,  2,  1. 

Krttika  svagnimadadhita. 

Mukham  va  etannaksatranarh,  Yatkrttika. 

Translation  :  One  should  consecrate  the  (sacred) 
fire  in  the  Kfttikds  ;  -the  Kftiikds  are  the  mouth  of 
the  nakqatras. 


GALENDARIC  ASTRONOMY 


133 


Later  during  Siddh&ntct  Jyotisa  times  the  enumeration 
started  with  Aivinl  (^tfisAirieitisY  and  -this  ns  still 
reckoned  to  be  the  first  of  the  naksatras ,  although  the 
vernal  point  has  now  receded  to  the  Uttdralihadrapada 
group  which  should  accordingly  be  taken  as  the  first 
naksatra.  But  the  change  has  not  been  done  because 
the  Indian  astrologers  have  failed  to  correct  the 
calendar  for  the  precession  of  equinoxes. 

The  Chinese  start  their  Hsius  with  Citra,  or 
a  Virginis.  This  refers  probably  to  the  time  when 
a  Virginis  was  near  the  autumnal  equinoctial  point 
(285  A.D.).  The  Arabs  start  their  Mamils  with 
/3  Arietis  (Ash-Shara$3m). 

There  has  been  a  good  deal  of  Controversy  regarding 
the  place  of  origin  of  the  lunar  zodiac.  Many  savants 
were  inclined  to  ascribe  the  origin  of  the  27  naksatra 
system  to  ancient  Babylon,  like  all  other  early  astro¬ 
nomical  discoveries.  But  as  far  as  the  authors  of  this 
book  are  aware,  there  is  no  positive  evidence  in  favour 
of  this  view.  Thousands  of  clay  tablets  containing 
astronomical  data  going  back  to  2000  B.C.,  and 
extending  up  to  the  first  century  A  D.  have  been 
obtained,  but  none  of  them  are  known  to  have  any 
..  reference  to  27  or  28  lunar  mansions. 

On  the  other  hand  (as  mentioned  before)  some  of 
the  naksatra  names  are  found  in  the  oldest  strata  of 
the  Rg-Vedas  {tide  §  5  2),  which  must  be  dated  before 
1200  B.C.,  and  a  full  list  with  some  difference  in  names 
is  found  in  the  Yajur-Veda,  which  must  be  dated  before 
600  B.C.  Nobody  has  yet  been  able,  to  refute  yet  Max 
Muller’s  arguments  in  favour  of  the  indigenous  origin 
of  the  Indian  naksatra  system  given  in  his  preface 
to  the  Rg-Veda  Samhita.  page  xxxv. 

It  should  be  admitted  that  the  lunar  zodiac  was  pre- 
scientific,  i.e.,  it  originated  before  astronomers  became 
conscious  of  the  celestial  equator  and  the  ecliptic,  and 
began  to  give  positions  of  steller  bodies  with  these  as 
reference  planes.  The  naksatras  give  very  roughly 
the  night-to-night  position  of  the  moon,  by  indicating 
its  proximity  to  stars  and  star-groups.  Many  of  the 
Indian  stars  identified  as  naksatras  are  not  at  all  near 
the  ecliptic  or  the  moon’s  path  which,  on  account  of 
its  obliquity,  is  contained  in  a  belt  within  +5°  of  the 
ecliptic.  Such  are  for  example  : 

(15)  Svati,  which  is  identified  with  Arcturus 
{a  Booiis ),  which  has  a  latitude  of  31°  N. 

(22)  Havana,  identified  with  a,  0,  y  Aquilae ,  having 
the  latitude  of  29*- N. 

(23)  Sravistha,  iderffified  with  a,  0,  y,  3  Delphini, 
a  having  the  latitude  of  33°  N. 

(25)  Parva  Bh&drapada  identified  with  a  Pegasi  and 
some  -other  adjacent  stars,  a  Pegasi  having  latitude  of 
\l9°-N. 


At  one  time,  the  brilliant  star  Vega  (a  Lyrae)  was 
also,  included  making  28  naksatras.  But  this  has  a 
latitude  of  62°  N  and  was  later  discarded. 

No  satisfactory  argument  has  been  given  for  the 
inclusion  of- such  distant  stars  in  the  lunar  zodiac!  The 
Arabs  and  the  Chinese  do '  not  include  these  distant 
stars  in  their  lunar  zodiac,  but  fainter  ones  near  the 
ecliptic.  Prof.  P.  C.  Sengupta  is  of  the  opinion  that 
Indians  generally  preferred  bright  stars,  but  when  such 
were  not  available  near  the  ecliptic,  they  chose  brighter 
ones  away  from  the  ecliptic,  which  could  be  obtained 
on  the  line  joining  the  moon’s  cusps. 

The  naksatras  were  used  to  name  the  ‘days’  in 
the  earliest  strata  of  Indian  literature.  Thus  when  the 
moon  is  expected  to  be  found  in  the  Magha  naksatra 
(a  Leonis),  the  day  would  be  called  the  Maghs  day. 
This  is  the  oldest  method  of  designating  the  day,  for  it 
is  found  in  the  Rg-Vedas.  Other  methods  of 
designating  the  day  by  tithis  or  lunar  days,  or  by  the 
seven  week-days,  came  later.  The  system  has  continued 
to  the  present  times.  In  old  times,  astrology  was  based 
almost  entirely  on  the  naksatras,  e.g.,  in  Asoke’s  records, 
the  Pusya  naksatra  day  was  regarded  as  auspicious 
when  Brahmanas  and  Sramanas  were  fed,  in  order  to 
enhance  the  king’s  punya  (religious  merits).  In  the 
Mdhabharaia  also  we  find  that  the  days  are  designated 
by  nakqatras  which  apparently  mean  the  star  or  star- 
cluster  near  which  the  moon  is  expected  to  be  seen 
during  the  night. 

As  is  apparent  from  Table  No.  5,  the  naksatras  are 
at  rather  unequal  distances,' i.e.,  they  rarely  follow  the 
ideal  distance  of  13£°.  This  is  rather  inconvenient  for 
precision  time-reckoning.  We  find  in  the  Yed&hga 
Jyolisa  times  an  attempt  at  a  precise  definition  of  the 
two  limits  of  a  naksatra ,  which  was  defined  as  800' 
(—13°  20  )  of  the  ecliptic.  The  naksatra  was  named 
according  to  the  most  prominent  star  ( TogntUra ) 
contained  within  these  limits.  These  are  given  in 
column  (2)  of  Table  5. 

We  do  not,  however,  have  any  idea  as  to  how  the 
beginnings  and  endings  of  the  naksatra  divisions  were 
fixed  in  India.  The  prominent  ecliptic  stars  which  were 
used  as  Yogat&ras  (junction-stars)  in  pre-Siddhantic 
period,  are  not  distributed  at  regular  intervals  along 
the  ecliptic;  and  so  it  was  found  very  difficult  to 
include  the  stars  in  their  respective  equal  divisions. 
This  will  be  clear  from  table  (No. -5)  where  the  junction 
stars  of  the  naksatras  according  to  the  Surya- 
Siddhanta  are  given  in  col.  (2).  The  celestial  longitudes 
of  the  stars  for  1956  A.D.  are  given  in  col.  (4)  and 
the  beginnings  of  each  division  for  the  same  year  are 
given  in  col.  (5),  taking  the  star  a  Virginis  to  occupy 
the  middle  position  of  the  naksatra  Citra,  which  marked 


REFORT'OF  THE  OALENfeAK  REFORM  OOMMITTEE 

Hkble  5. — Stars  of  the  Natsatra  divisions. 

Positions  of  the  Jfikction  Stars  of  Naksafra  Divisions  of  the  Slddhantas 


Name  of 
□akQatras 

Junction  star 
( Yogat&ra, ) 
of  nak$atras 

Latitude 

'*) 

(2) 

.(a) 

1. 

Asvini 

0  'Arietis 

+  8° 

29' 

2. 

Bharani 

41  Arietis 

+  10 

27 

3. 

Krttikn 

7?  Tauri 

+  4* 

83 

4. 

Rohiyi 

a  Tauri 

-  & 

3* 

5. 

Mpgasiras 

X  Orionis 

-iV 

m 

6. 

Ardra 

a  Orionis 

-id 

2' 

7. 

Punarvasu 

0  Geminorum 

+  6 

41 

8. 

Pusya 

8  Cancri 

+  0 

5 

9. 

Aslesii 

a  Caneri 

-  5 

5 

10. 

Magha 

a  Leonis 

+  0 

28 

11. 

Pflrva  Phalguni 

8  Leonis 

+  14 

20 

12. 

Uttara  Phalguni 

0  Leonis 

+  12. 

16 

13.^ 

Ha-sta 

8  Corvi 

-12 

12 

14. 

Citra 

a  Virginia 

-  2 

3. 

15. 

Svati 

a  Bootis' 

+  30 

46 

16. 

Visakha 

a  Libra 

+  0 

20 

17. 

Anuradha 

8  Scorpii 

-  1 

59 

18. 

J  yestha 

...a  Scorpii 

-  4 

34 

19. 

Mu  la 

X  Scorpii. 

-13 

47 

20. 

Purvlisadha 

8  Sagittarii 

-  6 

28. 

21. 

Uttarasadha 

a  Sagittarii 

-  3 

27 

22. 

Havana 

a  Aquilae 

+  29 

18 

23. 

Dhaniyfha 

0  Delphini 

+  31 

55 

24. 

Satabhisaj 

X  Aquarii 

-  0 

23 

25. 

Purva  Bhadrapada 

i  a  Pegasi 

+19 

24 

26. 

Uttara  Bhadrapada  y  Pegasi 

+  12 

86 

27. 

Ravatl 

f  Piscium 

-  0 

13 

the 

position  of  the 

autumnal  equinox 

at  the  time 

when  the  table  was  compiled.  The  figures  in  "the  last 
colymn  represent  the  position  of  the  star  in  the  nak$alra 
division  of  that  name.  It  seems  that  a  few"  of  the 
Yogataras,  vix No.  6  Ardra,  No.  15  Srati,  No.  18 
Jye^tha,  No.  20  Purv5.$a<iha,  No.  21  Uttara$adha, 
No.  22  fcravaya,  and’No.  23  Vliani^tha  fall  outside  the 
nak$atra  division  of  which  they  are  supposed  to  form  the 
Yogatara.  Matters  do  not  improve  much,  if  we  shift 
the  beginning  of  each  division  so  as  to  place  (  Piscium 
{Revatl)  at  the  end  of  the  Revatl  division  or  in 
other  words  at  the  beginning  of  the  Ascinl  division. 
This  will  mean  that  the  figures  in  col.  (6)  will 
then  have-  to  be  increased  by  3°  59',  which  will 
push  up  the  Yogataras  of  1  As  vim,  2  Dharaiii, 
3'  KrUikd,  8  Ha$ta,  25  P.  Bhadrapada,  and 

26  U.  Bhadrapadd,  so  as  to  go  outside  the  naksatra 
division  of  which  they  form  the  Yogatard.  In  fact  no 
arrangement  at  any  time  appears  to  have  been 
satisfactory  enough  for  all  the  YOgateiHa  to  fall  within 
their  respective  ndk^c^tra  divisions. 


Ldpgitude  Biginning  point  Position  of  the  star 

Smya-na  of  the  nak?atra  in  the  nakfatra 

(1^56)  division  (1956)  division. 

(4)  (5)  (6) 


33° 

22' 

2fS° 

15' 

O 

O 

7' 

47 

36 

86 

35 

n 

1 

59" 

23 

49 

55 

9 

28 

69 

11 

63 

15 

5 

56 

83 

6 

t6 

35 

6 

31 

88 

9 

89 

55 

(-)l 

46 

112 

37 

108 

15 

9 

22 

128 

7 

116 

35 

11 

32 

133 

2 

129 

55 

3 

7 

149 

13 

143 

15 

5 

58 

160 

42 

156 

35 

4 

7 

171- 

1 

169 

55 

1 

6 

192 

51 

183 

15 

9 

36 

203 

14 

196 

35 

6 

39 

203 

38 

209 

55 

( —  )6 

17 

224 

28 

223 

15 

1 

13 

241 

58 

236 

35 

5 

23 

249 

9 

249 

55 

(-)o 

46 

263 

59 

263 

15 

0 

44 

273 

58 

276 

35 

(  — )2 

37 

281 

47 

289 

55 

(  — )8 

8 

301 

10 

308 

15 

(")2 

5 

315 

44 

316 

35 

(-)o 

51 

340 

58 

329 

55 

11 

3 

352 

53 

348 

15 

9 

38 

8 

33 

3fi6 

35 

11 

58 

19 

16 

9 

55 

9 

21 

The 

divisions 

of  nakqalras 

shown  in  the  table, 

already  stated,  has  been  based  on  the  assumption  that 
the  star  Spica  occupies  the  180th  degree  of  the  lunar 
zodiac.  This  arrangement  agrees  with  the  statement 
of  the  Vedaiiga  Jyotisa  that  the  l)hani$\hd  star 
(a  or  0  Belphini)  marked  the  beginning  of  the 
Dhani^thd  division,  and  also  of  the  Varaha’s  Surya 
Siddhania  that  Regulus  (  i  Leonis)  is  situated  at  the  6th 
degree  of  the  Magha,  division. 

4.2  LONG  PERIOD  OBSERVATIONS  OF  THE  MOON  : 

THE  CHALDEAN  SAROS 

The  moon  gains  on  the  sun  at  the  average  rate  of 
12y°  per  day,  but  it  did  not  take  the  ancients  lopg  to 
discover  that  the  daily  gain  of  the  moon  on  the  sun 
is  far  from  uniform  ;  in  fact  as  we  know  now,  it 
varies  from  approximately  10|°  to  14|°  per  day.  It  was 
therefore  not  possible  to  say  beforehand  whether 
the  crescent  moon  would  appear  on  the  29th  or  on  the 
30th  day  after  the  beginning  of  the  previous  month. 


CATjSSNDABH?  abtr^omy 


But  the  exact  prediction  of  the  day  was  a  necessity 
from  the  socio-religious  point  of  view.  In  India,  the 
month  was  measured  from  full-ns^on  to  full-moon,  and 
in  the  MahSbkarata,  the  great  epic  which  was  compiled 
from  older  materials  about  400  B.  C.,  it  is  recorded 
that  sometimes  the  full  moon  occurred  on  the 
thirteenth  day  after  the  new-moon,  This  was  taken 
to  forebode  great  calamities  for  mankind.  There  were 
similar  ideas  in  Babylon  of  which  Pannekoek  says  : 

“When  the  Moon  is  full  on  the  night  of  the  14th,  the 
normal  time,  it  was  a  lucky  omen  ;  when  full-moon  happened 
on  the  night  of  the  13th,  15th  or  16th,  it  was  abnormal, 
hence  a  bad  omen.  Here  astrology  and  calendar  were  merged  ; 
deviation  in  the  calendar  was  considered  an  unlucky  sign 
and  had  to  be  restored  at  the  end  of  the  month.”1'' 

Neugebauer  says  : 

“The  months 'of  the  Babylonian  calendar  are  always  real 
lunar  months,  the  first  day  of  which  begins  with  the  first 
visibility  of  the  new  crescent.  The  exact  prediction  of 
this  phenomenon  is  the  main  problem  of  the  lunar  theory 
as  known  to  us  from  about  250  B.  C.  onwards.”+ 

This  is  rather  comparatively  late  date.  The  reason 
is  that  the  accomplishment  of  this  objective  depends 
on  the  evolution  of  methods  of  exact  astronomical 
observations,  and  of  a  method  of  recording  them  in 
precise  mathematical  language.  Some  ancient  people 
never  reached  this  stage.  As  far  as  we  are  aware, 
the  ancient  Babylonians  were  the  first  to  evolve 
methods  of  observational  astronomy.  They  also  arrived 
at  the  principles  of  angular  measurements,  found 
the  apparent  paths  of  the  moon,  the  sun,  and  the 
planets  in  the  heavens,  and  discovcred^that  it  was  only 
the  sun’s  path  (the  ecliptic)  which  was  fixed,  and  the 
paths  of  the  moon,  and  the  planets  deviated  somewhat 
from  it.  How  this  was  done  will  be  related  later. 

But  even  before  these  accurate  methods  had  been 
discovered,  the  Babylonian  astronomers  had  learnt  a 
lot  more  about  the  moon  from  long  period  observa¬ 
tions.  The  most  remarkable  of  these  discoveries  is 
that  of  the  Chaldean  Saros,  or  a  period  of  18  years 
10J  days,  in  which  the  eclipses  of  the  sun  and  the 
moon  recur. 

The  occurrence  of  solar  or  lunar  eclipses,  when  the 
two  great  luminaries  disappear  suddenly,  either  partially 
or  wholly,  were  very  striking  phenomena  for  the 
ancient  and  medieval  people,  and  gave  rise  to  gloomy 
forebodings.  There  were  all  kinds  of  speculations 
about  the  cause  of  the  eclipses,  e.g.,  that  the  sun  and 
the  moon  were  periodically  devoured  by  demons  or 
dragons.  The  ancient  astronomers,  however,  found 
that  a  solar  eclipse  takes  place  only  near  conjunction 

*  A.  Pannekoek  :  The  Origin  of  Astronomy. 
t  0.  Neugebauer  :  Babylonian  Planetary  Theory, 


m 

(  new-jpoon  ),  'but  every  conjunction  of  the  sun  and 
the  moon  is  not  the  occasion!  4|r  a  solar  eclipse.  A 
lunar  eclipse  takes  place  only  pear  opposition  (full- 
moon  ),  but  every  opposition  of  the  sun  and  the  moon 
is  not  the  occasion  for  a  lunar  eclipse. 

In  many  ancient  countries,  China  and  Babylon  for 
example,  records  of  occurrence  of  eclipses  had  been 
kept.  The  celebrated  Greek  astronomer,  Ptolemy  of 
Alexandria  (  ca.  1,50  A.  D. )  had  before  him  a  record 
of  eclipses  kept  at  the  Babylonian  archives,  dating 
from  747  B.  C.  They  gave  date  of  occurrence,  time, 
and  features  of  the  eclipse,  whether  they  were  partial 
or  total.  From  an  analysis  of  these  records,  the 
Chaldean  astronomers  tried  to  discover  the  laws  of 
periodicity  of  eclipses,  which  ultimately  resulted  in  the 
discovery  of  the  Saros  cycle  of  18  years  and  10  or  11 
days.  The  basis  of  the  Saros  cycle  is  as  follows  : 

We  do  not  exactly  know  when  the  ancient 
astronomers  outgrew  the  myth  of  demons  periodically 
devouring  the  sun  and  the  moon  during  eclipse  times, 
and  arrived  at  the  physical  explanations  now  known 
to  every  student  of  astronomy,  and  reproduced  in  the 
diagrams  given  below. 


Fig.  4 — Showing  an  eclipse  of  the  moon. 


But  when  they  arrived  at  physical  explanation  of 
eclipses,  they  had  an  understanding  as  to  why  there 
are  no  eclipses  during  every  full  moon  and  new  moon. 
The  paths  of  the  two  luminaries  must  be  in  different 
planes.  This  we  take  up  in  a  subsequent  section  more 
fully,  when  we  describe  how  the  sun’s ’path  or  ecliptic 
was  discovered. 

Suffice  it  to  say  that  at  some  ancient  epoch,  some 
Chaldean  astronomer  discovered  that  the  moon’s  path 
was  different  from  the  sun’s,  and  therefore  cuts  the 
sun’s  path  at  two  points,  >  now  called  Nodes.  The 
condition  for  an  eclipse  to  happen  is  that  the  full- 
moon  and  new-moon  must  take  place  sufficiently  close 
to  the  Nodes,  otherwise  the  luminaries  would  be  too 
far  apart,  for  an  eclipse  to  take  place. 

The  ‘Nodes’  now  take  the  place,  of  the  my^hhcal  dra¬ 
gons  which  were  supposed  to  waylay  the  sun  and  the 
moon,  periodically,  and  swallow  and  disgorge  them. 
In  Hindu  astronomy,  the  ascending  node  is  called 


186 


REPORT  OF  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


Kahu  with  the  symbol  &  ,  and  the  descending  node  is 
called  Ketii  with  the  symbol  25,  the  names  of  the  two 


Fig.  5 — Showing  an  annular  eclipse  of  the  sun. 


halves  of  the  demon,  who  was  cut  in  two  by  gods,  so 
that  the  sun  and  the  moon  could  get  out. 

In  very  ancient  times,  it  was  found  that  the  two 
‘Nodes’  were  not  fixed,  but  moved  steadily  to  the  west, 
so  that  the  sun  took  less  than  a  year  to  return  to  the 
same  node.  This  time  is  known  as  the  ‘ Draconitic  year’ 
or  year  of  the  Dragons,  and  its  length  is  346.62005 
days.  The  time  in  which  the  moon  returns  to  the 
same  node  is  known  as  the  draconitic  month  or  the 
month  of  dragons.  It  is  slightly  less  than  the  sidereal 


month;  because  the  nodes  regres's  to  the  west.  Its 
value  is  27.21222  days. 


Fig.  6 — Showing  a  total  eclipse  of  the  sun. 


The  Chaldeans  appear  to  have  found,  about  400 
B.  C.,  that  223  synodic  months =242  draconitic  months. 


The  reader  can  verify 

223  synodic  month  =6585.321  days 
242  draconitic  months  =>  6585.357  days 


From  their  long  observations  of  eclipses,  the 
Chaldean  astronomers  must  have  found  that  eclipses 
recur  after  an  interval  of  6585$  days  or  18  years  11$ 
days  (or  18  years  10$  days  if  5  leap-years  intervene). 
This  cycle  has  been  known  as  the  Chaldean  Saros. 
The  extent  to  which  a  knowledge  of  the  cycle  is  useful 
is  given  in  the  following  modern  table. 


Table  6. — List  of  Lunar  Eclipses  of  the  Saros  cycle. 


L+inar  Eclipses 


1914,  Mar. 

12 

1932,  Mar. 

22 

1950,  Apr. 

2 

Asc. 

Part.-Total 

Sept. 

4 

Sept. 

14 

Sept. 

26 

Des. 

Part. -Total 

1916,  Jan. 

20 

1934,  Jan. 

30 

1952,  Feb. 

11 

Asc. 

Partial 

July 

15 

July 

26 

Aug. 

5 

Des. 

Partial 

1917,  Jan. 

8 

1935,  Jan. 

19 

1953,  Jan. 

29 

Asc. 

Total 

July 

4 

July 

16 

July 

26 

Des. 

Total 

Dec. 

28 

1936,  Jan. 

8 

1954,  Jan. 

19 

Asc. 

Total 

1918,  June 

24 

July 

4 

July 

16 

Des. 

Partial 

■1919,  Nov. 

7 

1^37,  Nov. 

18 

1955,  Nov. 

29 

Asc. 

Partial 

1920,  May 

3 

1938,  May 

14 

1956,  May 

24 

Des. 

Total-Part. 

Oct. 

27 

Nov. 

7 

Nov. 

18 

Asc. 

Total 

1921,  Apr. 

22 

1939,  May 

3 

1957,  May 

13 

Des. 

Total 

Oct. 

16 

Oct. 

28 

Nov. 

7 

Asc. 

Part.-Total 

1923,  Mar. 

3 

1941,  Mar. 

13 

1959,  Mar. 

24 

Des. 

Partial 

Aug. 

26 

Sept. 

5 

— 

Asc. 

Partial 

1924,  Feb. 

20 

1942,  Mar. 

3 

1960,  Mar. 

13 

Des. 

Total 

Aug. 

14 

Aug. 

26 

Sept. 

5 

Asc. 

Total 

1925,  Feb. 

8 

1943,  Feb. 

20 

1961,  Mar. 

2 

Des. 

Partial 

Aug. 

4 

Aug. 

15 

Aug. 

26 

Asc. 

Part.-Total 

1927,  June 

15 

1945,  June 

25 

1963,  July 

6 

Asc. 

Total-Part. 

Dec. 

8 

Dec. 

19 

Dec. 

30 

Des. 

Total 

1928,  June 

3 

1946,  June 

14 

1964,  June 

25 

Asc. 

Total 

Nov. 

27 

Dec. 

8 

Dec. 

19 

Des. 

Total  1 

— 

1947,  June 

3 

1965,  June 

14 

Asc. 

Partial 

1930,  Apr. 

13 

1948,  Apr. 

23 

— 

Asc. 

Partial  '  • 

Oct. 

7 

— 

— 

Des. 

Partial 

1931,  Apr. 

2 

1949,  Apr. 

13 

1967,  Apr. 

24. 

Asc. 

Total 

Sept. 

26 

Oot. 

7 

Oct. 

18 

Des. 

Total 

GALENDAEIG -  ASTRONOMY  187 

Table  7. — List  of  Solar  Eclipses. 

Eclipses  of  the  Saros  cycle 

Solar  Eclipses 

The  dates  of  recurrence  of  the  corresponding  eclipses  in  three  cycles  from  1914  to  1967,  the  node  at  which 
the  eclipse  occurs,  and  the  nature  of  the  eclipse  are  shown  below. 


1914,  Feb. 

25 

1932,  Mar. 

7 

1950,  Mar. 

18 

Asc. 

Annular 

Aug. 

21 

Aug. 

31 

Sept. 

12 

Des. 

Total : 

1915,  Feb. 

14 

1933,  Feb. 

24 

1951,  Mar. 

7 

Asc. 

Annular . 

Aug. 

10 

Aug. 

21 

Sept. 

1 

Des. 

Annular 

1916,  Feb. 

3 

1934,  Feb. 

14 

1952,  Feb. 

25 

Asc. 

Total 

July 

30 

Aug. 

10 

Aug. 

20 

Des. 

Annular 

Dec. 

24 

1935,  Jan. 

5 

1953,  •— 

Asc. 

Partial 

1917,  Jan. 

23 

Feb. 

3 

Feb. 

14 

Asc. 

Partial 

June 

19 

June 

30 

July 

11 

Des. 

Partial 

July 

19 

July 

30 

Aug. 

9 

Des. 

Partial 

Dec. 

14 

Dec. 

25 

1954,  Jan. 

5 

Asc. 

Annular 

1918,  June 

8 

1936,  June 

19 

June 

30 

Des. 

Total 

Dec. 

3 

Dec. 

13 

Dec.  . 

25 

Asc. 

Annular 

1919,  May 

29 

1937,  June 

8 

1955,  June 

20 

Des. 

Total 

Nov. 

22 

Dec. 

2 

Dec. 

14 

Asc. 

Annular 

1920,  May 

18 

1938,  May 

29 

1956,  June 

8 

Des. 

Part.-Total 

Nov. 

10 

Nov. 

22 

Dec. 

2 

Asc. 

Partial 

1921,  Apr. 

'8 

1939,  Apr. 

19 

1957,  Apr. 

29 

Des. 

Annular 

Oct. 

1 

Oct. 

12 

Oct. 

23 

Asc. 

Total-Part. 

1922,  Mar. 

28 

1940,  Apr. 

7 

1958,  Apr. 

19 

Des. 

Annular 

Sept. 

21 

Oct. 

1 

Oct. 

12 

Asc. 

Total 

1923,  Mar. 

17 

1941,  Mar. 

27 

1959,  Apr. 

8 

Des. 

Annular 

Sept. 

10 

Sept. 

21 

Oct. 

2 

Asc. 

Total 

1924,  Mar. 

5 

1942,  Mar. 

16 

1960,  Mar. 

27 

Des. 

Partial 

July 

31 

Aug. 

12 

— 

Asc. 

Partial 

Aug. 

30 

Sept. 

10 

Sept. 

20 

Asc. 

Partial 

1925,  Jan. 

24 

1943,  Feb. 

4 

1961,  Feb. 

15 

Des. 

Total 

July 

20 

Aug. 

1 

Aug. 

11 

Asc. 

Annular 

1926,  Jan. 

14 

1944,  Jan. 

25 

1962,  Feb. 

5 

Des. 

Total 

July 

9 

July 

20 

July 

31 

Asc. 

Annular 

1927,  Jan. 

3 

1945,  Jan. 

14 

1963,  Jan. 

25 

Des. 

Ann.-Total 

June 

29 

July 

9 

July 

20 

Asc. 

Total 

Dec. 

24 

1946,  Jan. 

3 

1964,  Jan. 

14 

Des. 

Partial 

1928,  May 

19 

May 

30 

June 

10 

Asc. 

Total-Part. 

June 

17 

June 

29 

July 

9 

Asc. 

Partial 

Nov. 

12 

Nov. 

23 

Dec. 

4 

Des. 

Partial 

1929,  May 

9 

1947,  May 

20 

1965,  May 

30 

Asc. 

Total 

Nov. 

1 

Nov. 

12 

Nov. 

23 

Des. 

Annular 

1930,  Apr. 

28 

1948,  May 

9 

1966,  May 

20 

Asc. 

Ann. -Total 

Oct. 

21 

Nov. 

1 

Nov. 

12 

Des. 

Total 

1931,  Apr. 

18 

1949^  Apr. 

28 

1967,  May 

9 

Asc. 

Partial 

Sept. 

12 

— 

— 

Des. 

Partial 

Oct. 

11 

Oct. 

21 

Nov. 

2 

Des. 

Part.-Total 

The  problem  of  first  visibility  of  the  moon  w  th  the  sky  were  discovered  in  ancient  times.  This  is 

which  we  started  cannot  therefore  be  taken  up  unless  taken  up  in  the  succeeding  sections, 

we  describe  how  the  path  of  the  sun  and  the  moon  in 


C.  E.— 82 


188 


BEPORT  OP  THE  CALBNDAB  BEPOEM  COMMITTEE 


4.8  THE  GNOMON 

Observations  of  the  positions  of  the  sun,  the  moon, 
planets  and  stars  are  now  made  very  accurately  with 
elaborate  instruments  installed  in  observatories.  But 
these  instruments  have  been  evolved  after  thousands 
of  years  of  experience  and  application  of  human 
ingenuity,  and  have  undergone  radical  changes  in 
design  and  set-up  with  every  great  technological 
discovery.  But  let  us  see  how  the  early  astronomers 
who  had  no  instruments  or  very  primitive  ones  made 
observations,  collected  the  fundamental  data,  and 
evolved  the  basic  astronomical  ideas. 

The  earliest  instrument  used- by  primitive  astrono¬ 
mers  appears  to  have  been  the  gnomon;  which  we 
now  describe. 


The  ancients  determined  the  latitude  of  the  place,  obliquity 
of  the  ecliptic,  the  length  of  the  year  and  the  time  of  day  by 
measuring  the  length  and  direction  of  shadow  of  the  gnomon. 

The  figure  shows  the  noon-shadow  of  the  gnomon  AB,  AE 
being  the  equinoctial  shadow  and  AC  and  AD  the  shadow  on 
two  solstice-days,  at  a  place  on  latitude  =  0. 

Nobody  can  fail  to  see  the  change  indirection  • 
and  length  of  shadows  of  vertical  objects  throughout 
the  day-time,  and  throughout  the  year.  Whep  these 
observations  are  carefully  made,  by  means  of  the 
gnomon  (  &ahku  in  Sanskrit ),  which  .  is  simply  a 
vertical  stick  planted  into  the  ground,  and  standing 
on  fairly  level  ground  of  large  area,  without  obstruc¬ 
tions  from  any  direction,  a  good  deal  of  astronomical 
knowledge  can  be  easily  deduced.  These  observations 
appear  to  have  been  made  in  all  ancient  countries. 

We  have  the  following  description,  by  George 
Sarton,  of  observations  made  in  ancient  times  in 
Greece  with  the  aid  of  the  gnomon.* 

“It  (the  gnomon)  is  simply  a  stick  or  a  pole  planted 
vertically  in  the  grot**  or  one  might  use  a  column  built  for 
that  purpose  or  for  any  other  ;  the  Egyptian  obelisks  would 
have  been  perfect  gnomons  if  sufficiently  isolated  from  other 
buildings.  Any  intelligent  person,  having  driven  his  spear 

*  Sarton  mentions  Anaximander  ( e.  610-545  B.C.)  of  Miletus  as  the 
earliest  Ionian  philosopher  who  used  the  gnomon  in  Greater  Greece. 


into  the  sand,  might  have  noticed  that  its  shadow  turned 
around  during  the  day  and  that  it  varied  in  length  as  it 
turned.  The  gnomon  in  its  simplest  form  was  the 
systematization  of  that  casual  experiment.  Instead  of  a 
spear,  a  measured  stick  was  established  solidly  in  a  vertical 
position  in  the  middle  of  a  horizontal  plane,  well  smoothed 
out  and  unobstructed  all  around  in  order  that  the  shadow 
oould  be  seen  clearly  from  sunup  to  sundown.  The  astro¬ 
nomer  (the  systematic  user  of  the  gnomon  deserves  that 
name)  observing  the  shadow  throughout  th§  year  would  see 
that  it  reached  a  minimum  every  day  (real  noon),  and  that 
minimum  varied  from  day  to  day,  being  shortest  at  one  time 
of  the  year  ( summer  solstice)  and  longest  six  months  later 
[winter  solstice).  Moreover,  the  direction  of  the  shadow 
turned  around  from  West  to  East  during  each  day, 
describing  a  fan  the  amplitude  of  which  varied  througout 
the  year”.* 

From  the  observation  of  the  shadows  cast  by  the 
gnomon,  many  useful  deductions  could  be  made. 
These  are  :  — 

(1)  Mark  the  points  in  the  morning  and  in  the 
evening  when  the  shadows  are  equal  in  length  and 
draw  the  lines  showing  the  shadows.  Then  bisect 
the  angle  between  the  two  shadow  lines.  This  gives 
us  the  meridian  or  the  north-south  direction  of  the 
place. 

The  process  of  bisection  was  done  by  taking  a  rope 
attaching  extreme  points  to  the  end  points  of  the 
equal  shadows  ;  then  take  the  mid-point  of  the  rope, 
and  stretch  the  rope,  and  mark  the  position  of 
the  mid-point.  This  connected  to  the  pole  gives  us 
the  meridihn  line.  If  we  draw  a  circle,  with  the  pole 
as  centre,  and  draw  the  meridian,  the  point  where  it 
strikes  the  northern  semi-circle  is  the  North  point, 
opposite  is  the  South  point.  The  East  and  West 
points  are  found  by  drawing  a  line  at  right  angles  to 
the  north-south  direction. 

So  the  cardinal  directions  are  found. 

(2)  Observe  the  position  of  the  sunrise  from  day 
to  day.  If  observations  are  carried  on  throughout  the 
year,  there  will  be  found  two  days  in  the  year  when 
the  sun  will  arise  exactly  on  the  east  point.  Then  it 
is  found  that  the  day  and  night  are  equal  in  length. 
These  days  are  called  the  Equinoctial  days.  Let  us 
start  from  the  equinoctial  day  in  Spring  (vernal 
equinox).  This  happens  on  March  2ist.  Then  we 
observe  that  the  sun  at  sunrise  is  steadily  moving  to 
the  north,  at  first  rapidly,  then  more  slowly.  Near 
the  extreme  north,  the  sun’s  movement  is  very  slow, 
so  this  point  is  called  the  'Solstice'  which  means  the 
sun  standing  still:  Actually  the  sun  reaches  its 
northern-most  point  on  June  22  (summer  solstice). 

*  George  Barton  •  A  History  of  Science,  p.  174. 


CALENDABIC  ASTRONOMY 


189 


The  day  is  longest  on  this  date.  Then  the  sun  begins  to 
move  south  till  it  crosses  the  east  point  on  September 
23,  when  day  and  night  again  become  equal  (the  autum¬ 
nal  equinox  day).  It  continues  to  move  south,  till 
the  extreme  south  is  reached  on  December  22,  (the 
winter  solstice  day),  when  daylight  is  shortest  for 
places  on  the  northern  hemisphere.  Then  the  sun 
turns  back  towards  the  east  point  reaching  it  on 
March  21,  and  the  year-cycle  is  complete. 

The  gnomon  thus  enabled  the  ancient  astronomers 
(in  Babylon,  India,  Greece,  and  China)  to  determine  . 

(a)  The  Cardinal  points  :  East,  North,  West,  and 
South  ;  the  north-south  line  is  the  meridian  line  (the 
Yamyottaia-rekha  in  Indian  astonomy). 

(b)  The  Cardinal  days  of  the  Year  :  vix., 

The  Vernal  Equinox  (V.E.)  day,  when  day  and 
night  are  equal. 

The  Summer  Solstice  (S  S.)  day,  when  the  day 
is  the  longest  for  observers  on  the  northern  hemisphere. 

The  Autumnal  Equinox  (A.E.)  day,  when  day 

and  night  are  again  equal. 

The  Winter  Solstice  (W.S.)  day,  wheti  the  day 
is  the  shortest  for  observers  on  the  northern  hemisphere. 

All  early  astronomical  work  was  done  in  the 
northern  hemisphere. 

These  methods  are  fully  described  in  the  Surya- 
Siddhanta,  Chap.  Ill,  but  they  appear  to  have  been 
practised  from  far  more  ancient  times.  In  the 
appendix  (5-C),  we  have  quoted  passages  from  the 
Aitareya  Br&hmana  which  shows  that  the  gnomon  was 
used  .to  determine  the  cardinal  days  of  the  year  at  the 
time  when  this  ritualistic  book  was  compiled.  The 
date  is  at  least  600  B.C.,  i.e.,  before  India  had  the 
Greek  contact.  It  may  be  considerably  older  evenr. 

(c)  To  mark  out  the  Seasons  :  We  have 
mentioned  earlier  that  in  countries  other  than  E$ypt, 
there  were  no  impressive  physical  phenomenon  like 
the  arrival  of  the  annual  flood  of  the  Nile  to  mark 
the  beginning  of  the  solar  year,  or  of  the  seasons.  The 
seasons  pass  imperceptibly  from  the  one  to  the  other. 

The  gnomon  observations  probably  enabled  the 
early  astronomers  of  Babylon  and  Greece  to  define  the 
onset  of  the  seasons,  and  the  length  of  the  year  with 
greater  precision. 

In  Graeco-Chaldean  astronomy,  we  have  four 
seasons  : 

Spring . from  V.E.  to  S.S. 

Summer .  „  to  A.E. 

Autumn .  „  A.E.  to  W.S. 

Winter .  „  W.S.  to  V.E. 

Thus,  every  season  starts  immediately  after  a 
cardinal  day  of  the  year  and  ends  on  the  next 
cardinal  day. 


According  to  Neugebauer  : 

“Babylonian  astronomy  (  during  Seleucid  periods, 

300  B.C.-75  A.D.  )  was  satisfied  with  an  exact  four-division 
of  the  seasons  as  far  as  solstices  and  equinoxes  are 
concerned,  with  the  summer  solstice  (  and  not  the  vernal 
point  )  as  the  fixed  point.”* 

At  a  later  stage,  they  however  found  that  the  four 
seasons  had  unequal  lengths  (  vide  §  3T). 

The  above  definition  of  'seasons'  has  come  down 
to  modern  astronomy.  The  Hindu  definition  of 
seasons  was  different  (  vide  §  5‘6  and  5-A  ) 

The  observation  of  the  Cardinal  days  of  the  year 
appear  to  have  been  carried  out  all  over  the  ancient 
world  by  other  methods,  and  often  in  a  far  more 
elaborate  manner.  People  would  observe  the 
day-to-day  rise  of  the  sun  on  the  eastern  horizon,  and 
mark  out  the  days  when  the  sun  was  farthest  north 
(summer  solstice  day),  or  farthest  south  (winter  solstice 
day).  The  time  period  taken  by  the  sun  to  pass  from 
the  southern  solstitial  point  to  the  northern  solstitial 
point  was  known  in  the  Vedas  as  the  Uttar  ay  ana 
(northern  passage),  and  that  taken  by  the  sun  to  pass 
from  the  northern  solstitial  point  to  the  southern 
solstitial  point  was  known  as  the  Dafainayana 
(southern  passage).  Exactly  midway  between  these 
points  the  sun  rises  on  the  vernal  and  autumnal 
equinoctial  days.  From  the  passage  in  the  Satapatha 
Brahmaya,  quoted  later  (  vide  §  5  3  ),  we  see  clearly  that 
the  point  on  the  eastern  horizon,  where  the  sun  rose 
on  these  days,  was  recognized  to  be  the  true  east. 

Doubt  has  been  expressed  about  the  ability  of 
Vedic  Aryans  to  make  these  observations,  but  to  these 
objections,  B.  G.  Tilak  replied  in  his  Orion,  pp.  16-17. 

“Prof.  Weber  and  Dr.  Schrader  appear  to  doubt  the 
conclusion  on  the  sole  ground  that  we  cannot  suppose  the 
primitive  Aryans  to  have  so  far  advanced  in  civilization 
as  to  correctly  comprehend  such  problems.  This  means 
that  we  must  refuse  to  draw  legitimate  inferences  from 
plain  facts  when  such  inferences  conflict  with  our  precon¬ 
ceived  notions  about  the  primitive  ,Aryarl  civilization.  I 
am  not  disposed  to'  follow  this  method,  nor  do  I  think  that 
people,  who  knew  and  worked  in  metals,  made  clothing 
of  wool,  constructed  boats,  built  houses  and  chariots, 
performed  sacrifices,  and  had  made  some  advance  in 
agriculture,  were  incapable  of  ascertaining  the  solar 
and  the  lunar  years.  They  could  not  have  determined  it 
correct  to  a  fraction  of  a  second  as  modern  astronomers 
have  done  ;  but  a  rough  practical  estimate  was,  certainly, 
not  beyond  their  powers  of  comprehension.” 

The  best  example  of  the  ability  of  the  ancient 
people  to  observe  the  cardinal  points  of  the  sun's 
motion  is  afforded  by  the  Stonehenge  in  the  Salisbury 
plains  of  England,  of  which  detailed  accounts 

*  Neugebauer  ■.  Babylonian  Planetary  Theory^  Proc.  Amer.  Pbilos, 
Soc.  Yol.  88  :  1, 1954,  p.  64T 


190 


REPORT  OE  THE  CALENDAR  BEEOEM  COMMITTEE 


have  recently  appeared  in  Scientific  American  ( 188, 
6-25, 1953  )  and  Discovery  (1953,  Vol.  XIV,  p.276). 

It  is  related  in  these  two  publications,  that  not  a 
long  time  subsequent  to  1800  B.C.,  say  about  1500-1200 
B.C.,  the  then  inhabitants  of  Britain,  who  had  not  even 
learnt  the  use  of  any  metal,  but  used  only  stone 
implements,  could  construct  a  huge  circular  area 
enclosed  by  large  upright  monoliths  forming  lintels 
and  with  a  horse-shoe  shaped  central  area  having  its 
axis  in  the  direction  of  sunrise  on  the  summer  solstice 
day.  It  has  been  proved,  almost  beyond  any  doubt, 
that  the  Stonehenge  was  used  for  the  ceremonial 
observation  of  sunrise  on  this  day.  Sir  Norman 
Lockyer  in  1900  found  that  the  direction  of  the  axis  of 
the  horse-shoe  actually  makes  an- angle  of  about  1*°  with 
the  present  direction  of  sunrise  on  the  summer  solstice 
day.  He  did  not  think  that  it  was  a  mistake  on  the 
part  of  the  original  builders  ;  but  that  on  account 
of  the  change  in  obliquity  (angle  between  equator  and 
ecliptic),  the  present  direction  of  sunrise  had  changed 
to  the  extent  of  lj°  and  using  the  rate  of  change  of 
obliquity,  he  could  fix  up  the  time  of  construction  at 
1800  +  200  B.C.  This  estimate  has  been  brilliantly 
confirmed  by  C “-analysis  of  some  wood  charcoal 
found  in  the  local  burial  pits  which  are  presumed  to  be 
contemporary  with  the  erection  of  the  Stonehenge. 

After  this  brilliant  confirmation  of  Lockyer’s 
hypothesis,  it  is  hoped  that  there  will  be  less  hesitation 
on  the  part  of  scholars  to  admit  that  it  was  possible 
for  the  Vedic  Aryans  who  knew  the  use  of  metal  and 
were  far  more  advanced  than  the  stone-age  people  of 
Britain,  to  devise  methods  for  the  observation  of  the 
cardinal  points  of  the  year. 

How  did  they  observe  these  points  ?  Probably  in  the 
same  way  as  the  Britishers  of  1500  B.C.,  by  observing 
from  a  central  place,  the  directions  of  sunrise  on  the 
eastern  horizon  throughout  the  year.  The  directions 
of  the  solstitial  rises  could  be  easily  marked.  Probably 
the  equinoctial  points  were  found  by  bisecting  the 
angle  between  these  two  directions  by  means  of  ropes 
as  described  in  the  Sulva-Sutras. 


4.4  NIGHT  OBSERVATIONS  :  THE  CELESTIAL 
POLE  AND  THE  EQUATOR 

Allpost  all  ancient  nations  were  familiar  with  the 
night-sky  either  as  shepherds,  travellers  or  navigators, 
and  were  acquaint®^  with  more  detailed  knowledge 
of  the  revolving  blue  firmament  studded  with  stars 
than  the  modern  city  dweller.  The  striking  constell- 
tions  like  the  Great  Bear,  the  Pleiades,  the  Orion  could 
not  but  catch  their  fancy  and  references  to  these  star- 
groups  are  found  in  ancient  literature,  in  the  Vedas,  in 


the  book  of  Job  (the  Bible)  and  itt  Homer.  In  the  last, 
the  star-groups  are  used  by  sailors  to  find  out  their 
orientation.  Representations  of  star-groups  are  found 
in  ancient  Babylonian  boundary  stones  of  about 
1300  B.C.  ( see  Fig.  15). 

Let  us  now  see  how  these  observations  were 
made. 

Suppose,  on  a  clear  moonless  evening  in  early 
Spring  (say  March  )  and  at  about  8"30  P.M.,  we  take 
our  stand  in  a  wide  field  undisturbed  by  city  lights. 


POLARIS 


NORTH 

*  - —  — 

HORIZON 

Fig.  8— Showing  the  positions  of  Ursa  Major  {Saptar.fi)  at 
interval  of  3  hours. 

and  our  vision  is  unobstructed  in  all  directions.  We 
now  face  the  north.  We  shall  find  the  appearance 
of  the  heavens  as  shown  in  Fig.  (8)  : 

In  the  north,  a  little  high  up  to  our  right  hand 
side  we  cannot  fail  to  observe  the  conspicuous 
constellation  of  seven  stars,  called  in  Europe  the 
Great  Bear,  but  in  India,  the  Saptar$i  or  seven  seers. 
If  we  observe  the  heavens  3  hours  later,  we  shall 
observe  that  the  group  .has  changed  its  position  as 
shown  in  Fig.  (8).  Let  us  fix  our  attention  on  the 
two  front  stars  (the  pointers)  of  the  Great  Bear 
and  join  a  line  through  them.  The  line  joining  these 
two  stars  appear  to  behave  like  the  hands  of  a  watch, 
for  if  produced  they  pass  through  a  star  half  as  bright 
at  some  distance,  and  appear  to  have  revolved  about  it 
as  centre.  This  star  is  called  the  Pole  Star  or  Polaris , 
or  Dhruva  in  Sanskrit  which  means  fixed.  If  we 
observe  throughout  the  night,  we  shall  find  that  the 
Polaris  remains  approximately  fixed,  and  the  line  of 
pointers  continues  to  go  round  it.  The  next  day,  at 


CALENDARIC  ASTRONOMY 


191 


8-26  P.M.,  nearly  24  hours  later  they  are  again  almost 
exactly  at  the  same  position.. 

We  naturally  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
whole  starry  heavens  have  been  rotating  round  an 
axis  passing  through  the  observer  and  the  Pole  Star 
from  east  to  west,  and  the  rotation  is  completed  in 
nearly  24  hours  (exactly  23h  56m  4s  of  mean  solar  time). 

Definition  of  the  Poles 

The  celestial  poles,  or  the  poles  round  which 
the  rotation  of  the  celestial  sphere  takes  place  may 
therefore  be  defined  as  those  two  points  in  the  sky 
where  a  star  would  have  no  diurnal  motion.  The 
exact  position  of  either  pole  may  be  determined  with 
proper  instruments  by  finding  the  centre  of  the  small 
diurnal  circle  described  by  some  star  near  it,  as  for 
instance,  the  stars  belonging  to  the  Ursa  Minor  group. 
Actually  the  so-called  pole  star  is  at  present  57 
minutes  away  from  the  correct  position  of  the  pole 
which  is  not  actually  occupied  by  any  star. 

Since  the  two  poles  are  diametrically  opposite  in 
the  sky,  only  one  of  them  is  usually  visible  from  a 
given  place  :  observers  north  of  the  equator  see  only 
the  north  pole,  and  vice  versa  in  the  southern 
hemisphere.  The  south  pole  is  not  marked  by  any 
prominent  star. 

Knowing  as  we  now  do,  that  the  apparent  revolu¬ 
tion  of  the  celestial  sphere  is  due  to  the  rotation  of 
the  earth  on  its  axis,  we  may  also  define  the  poles  as 
the  two  points  where  the  earth’s  axis  of  rotation  (or 
any  set  of  lines  parallel  to  it),  produced  indefinitely, 
would  pierce  the  celestial  sphere. 

The  Celestial  Equator  and  Hour  Circles 

The  celestial  equator  is  the  great  circle  of  the 
celestial  sphere,  drawn  halfway  between  the'"  poles 


(and  therefore  everywhere  90°  from  each  of  them),  and 
is  the  great,  circle  in  which  the  plane  of  the  earth’s 
equator  cuts  the  celestial  sphere,  -as  illustrated  in 
Fig.  (9).  Small  circles  drawn  parallel  to  the  celestial 


equator,  like  the  parallels  of  latitude  on  the  earth, 
are  called  parallels  of  declination.  A  star’s  parallel  of 
declination  is  identical  with  its  diurnal  circle. 

The  great  circles  of  the  celestial  sphere,  which  pass 
through  the  poles  in  the  same  way  as  the  meridians  on 
the  earth,  and  which  are  therefore  perpendicular  to 
the  celestial  equator,  are  called  hour-circles.  Each 
star  has  its  own  hour-circle,  which  at  the  moment 
when  the  star  passes  the  north-south  line  through  the 
zenith  of  the  observer,  coincides  with  the  celestial 
meridian  of  the  place. 


4.5  THE  APPARENT  PATH  OF  THE  SUN  IN  THE  SKY  : 
THE  ECLIPTIC 

The  apparent  path  of  the  sun  in  the  sky  is  known 
in  astronomical  language  as  the  ecliptic.  It  is  a  great 
circle  cutting  the  celestial  equator  at  an  angle  of  ca 
23t°  (exactly  23°  26'  43"  in  1955,  but  the  angle  varies 
from  21°  59'  to  24°  36').  This  is  known  as  the 
obliquity  of  the  ecliptic. 

The  ecliptic  is  the  most  important  reference  circle 
in  the  heavens,  and  let  us  see  how  a  knowledge  of  it 
was  obtained  in  ancient  times. 

It  is  obvious  that  a  knowledge  of  the  stars  marking 
the  sun’s  path  could  not  be  obtained  directly  as  in  the 
case  of  the  moon  ;  for  when  the  sun  is  up,  not  even 
the  brightest  stars  are  visible.  The  knowledge  must 
have  been  obtained  indirectly.  Early  observers  were 
accustomed  to  observe  the  heliacal  rising  of  stars,  i.e., 
observe  the  brilliant  stars  lying  close  to  the  sun  which 
are  on  the  horizon  just  before  sunrise.  This  must 
have  given  them  a  rough  idea  of  the  stars  lying  close  to 
the  sun’s  path.  Fiom  these  observations,  as  well  as 
from  successive  appearances  of  the  moon  on  the  first 
days  of  the  month  as  narrated  in  §  4T,  they  must  have 
also  deduced  that  the  sun  was  slipping  from  the  west 
to  the  east  with  reference  to  the  fixed  stars,  and 
completing  a  revolution  in  one  year.  But  how  was 
this  path  rigorously  fixed  ? 

It  appears  that  a  knowledge  of  the  stars  lying  on,- 
or  close  to  the  moon’s  path  was  obtained  from  observa¬ 
tions  made  during  lunar,  rarely  of  solar  eclipses. 

They  must  have  realized,  as  narrated  in  §  4.2, 
that  during  a  total  lunar  eclipse,  the  moon  occupies  a 
position  in  the  heavens  opposite  the  sun,  and  the  stars 
close  to  the  moon,  which  become  visible  during 
totality,  approximately  mark  out  points  on  the  sun’s 
path.  So  the  word  ‘ Ecliptic ’  which  means  the  locus  of 
eclipses,  came  to  denote  the  sun’s  path. 

The  two  points  of  intersection  of  the  ecliptic 
with  the  celestial  equator  are  called.' respectively  the 


192 


REPORT  OF  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM.  COMMITTEE 


Mrst  point  of  Aries ,  and  the  First  point  of  Libira.  The 
first  point  of  Aries  is  the  ascending  node,  when  the 
sun  passes  from  the  south  to  the  north  5  the  first 
point  of  Libra  is  the  descending  node,  when  the  sun 
passes  from  the  north  to  the  south.  W e  have  vernal 
equinox  when  the  sun  is  at  tSe  first  point  of  Aries, 
summer  solstice  when  the  sun  is  at  the  first  point  of 
Cancer,  autumnal  equinox  when  the  sun  is  at  the  first 
point  of  Libra,  and  winter  solstice  when  the  sun  is 
at  the  first  point  of  Capricorn.  To  the  origin  of 
nomenclature,  we  return  later. 

The  celestial  equator  and  the  ecliptic  are  the  most 
important  reference  planes  in  astronomy.  The 
positions  of  all  heavenly  bodies  are  given  in  terms  of 
these  planes,  taking  the  first  point  of  Aries  as  the 
initial  point.  We  explain  below  the  scientific  defini¬ 
tions  of  spherical  co-ordinates  used  to  denote  the 
position  of  a  body  on  the  celestial  globe. 


Fig.  1C.— Sl  owing  the  spherical  co-ordinates  of  a  star. 


In  this  figure  : 

P=  Celestial  pole  ( dhruva ). 
rQi.  =  Celestial  equator. 

K=Pole  of  the  ecliptic  ( kadamba ). 

T  26  =*  Plane  of  the  ecliptic, 
r  =  First  point  of  Aries  (vfernal  equinox). 

25  =»  First  point  of  Cancer- (summer  solstice). 

=First  point  of  Libra  (autumnal  equinox). 

V?*=  First  point  of  Capricorn  (winter  solstice), 

S  — A  heavenly  body. 

PS  “Great  circWhro’P.S  cutting  equator  at  Q. 
rQ  — Right  ascension— a 
QS  =■  Declination  =*  8 

Great  .circle  through  K,  S  cutting  ecliptic 
at  C. 


TC=> Celestial  longitude  —  X 
CS  =  Celestial  latitude  =  0 
Let  PS  cut  the  ecliptic  at  B.  Then 
TB  =  Polar  longitude  or  dhruvakcv-l 
BS  =  Polar  latitude  or  vik$epa  =  d 

These  last  two  peculiar  co-ordinates,  now  no  longi 
used,  were  used  by  the  Suryci  Siddhantn  to  denote  sta 
positions.  They  have  been  traced  by  Neugebauer  tc 
Hipparchos  five  centuries  earlier. 

The  position  of  a  stellar  body  may  be  defined  by 
either  its  right  ascension  (a)  and  declination  (8), 
or  its  celestial  longitude(X)  and  latitude^). 

The  positions  of  stars  in  these  co-ordinates  began  to 
be  given  from  the  time  of  Claudius  Ptolemy  (150  A.D.) 
who  used  them  in  his  Syntaxis. 


4.6  THE  ZODIAC  AND  THE  SIGNS 

The  early  astronomers  must  have  found  that  the 
sun’s  path  in  the  heavens  was  almost  fixed,  while 
that  of  the  moon,  and  of  the  planets,  which  acquired 
for  astrological  reasons  great  importance  from  about 
1200  B.C.,  strayed  some  degrees  to  the  north  and  south 
of  the  ecliptic. 

In  case  of  the  moon  the  deviation  from  the  ecliptic 
was  found  to  be  not  much  greater  than  5°,  but  some 
of  the  planets  strayed  much  more  ;  in  the  case  of 
Venus,  her  perpendicular  distance  from  the  ecliptic 
rises  sometimes  as  high  as  8°  degrees.  So  a  belt  was 
imagined  straying  about  9°  north  and  9°  south  of  the 
ecliptic,  in  which  the  planets  would  always  remain  in 
course  of  their  movement.  This  belt  came  to  be 
known  as  the  ‘Zodiac.’ 

The  complete  cycle  of  this  belt  was  divided  into  12 
equal  sectors  each  of  303,  and  each  sector  called  a 
‘Sign’.  The  signs  started  with  one  of  the  points  of 
intersection  of  the  ecliptic  and  the  equator,  and  the 
first  sign  was  called  ‘Aries’  after  the  constellation  of 
stars  within  it.  The  names  of  the  succeeding  signs  are 
given  in  Table  No.  8  on  the  next  page,  in  which  : 

The  first  column  gives  the  beginning  and  ending  of 
the  signs,  the  vernal  equinoctial  point  being  taken  as 
the  origin. 

The  second  column  gives  the  international  names 
which  are  in  Latin  with  the  symbols  used  to  denote 
the  signs. 

The  third  column  gives  their  English  equivalent. 

The  fourth  column  gives  the  Greek  names.  They 
are  synonimous  with  the  international  names. 

The  fifth  column  gives  a  set  of  alternative  names 
for  the  signs'given  by  Varahamihira. 


CALENDARS  ASTRONOMY 

Table  8. — Zodiacal  Signs. 

Different  Names  of  Zodiacal  Signs 


193 


Beginning  and 

Name  of  the 

English 

Greek 

Varaha 

Indian 

Babylonian 

ending  of  the 

Signs  & 

equivalent 

names 

Mihira 

names 

names 

Signs 

(1) 

Symbol 

(2) 

(3) 

(4) 

(5) 

(6) 

(7) 

o 

o 

GO 

o 

o 

r 

Aries 

Ram 

Krios 

Kriya 

Mesa 

Ku  or  Iku  (Ram) 

30  -  .60 

0 

Taurus 

Bull 

Tauros 

Taburi 

Vrsabha 

Te-te  (Bull) 

60  -  90 

n 

Gemini 

Twins 

Didumoi 

Jituma 

Mithuna 

Masmasu  (Twins) 

90  -120 

$ 

Cancer 

Crab 

Karxinos 

Kulira 

Karka  or  Karkata 

Nangaru  (Crab) 

120  -150 

fl 

Leo 

Lion 

Leon 

Leya 

Simha 

Aru  (Lion) 

160  -180 

up 

Virgo 

Virgin 

PartheOos 

Pathona 

Kanya 

Ki  (Virgin) 

180-210 

-A. 

Libra 

Balance 

Zugos 

Juka 

Tula 

Nuru  (Scales) 

210.-240 

HI 

Scorpio 

Scorpion 

Scorpios 

Kaurpa 

Vrscika 

Akrabu  (Scorpion) 

240  -270 

t 

Sagittarius 

Archer 

Tozeutes 

Tauksika 

Dhanub 

Pa  (Archer) 

270  -300 

Vf 

Capricornus 

Goat 

Ligoxeros 

Akokera 

Makara 

Sahu  (Goat) 

300  -330 

iz: 

Aquarius 

Water  Bearer 

Gdroxoos 

Hrdroga 

Kumbha 

Gu  (Water  carrier) 

330  -360 

X 

Pisces 

Fish 

Ich  thues 

Antyabha 

Mina 

Zib  (Fish) 

The  sixth  column  gives  the  Indian  names- 

The  seventh  columa  gives  the  Babylonian  names. 

It  can  be  easily  inferred  from  the  table  that  the 
names  are  of  Babylonian  origin,  but  their  exact 
significance  is  not  always  known.  It  has  been  assumed 
that  the  symbols  used  to_  denote  the  signs  have  been 
devised  from  a  representation  of  the  figure  of  the 
animal  or  object  after  which  the  sign  has  been  named, 
for  example,  the' mouth  and  horns  of  the  Ram,  the  same 
of  the  Bull,  and  so  on. 

It  is  seen  that  Varahamihira’s  alternative  names 
given  in  column  (  5  )  are  simply  the  Greek  names 
corrupted  in  course  of  transmission  and  as  adopted  for 
Sanskrit  ;  with  the  exception  of  the  name  for 
Scorpion,  which  is  given  as  ‘Kaurpa’.  This  has  phonetic 
analogy  with  the  corresponding  Babylonian  sign  name 
Akrabu  for  Scorpion.  The  purely  Sanskrit  ‘names 
given  in  column  (6)  are  all  translations  of  Greek  names 
with  the  exceptions  of  : 

(3)  Twins,  which  become  Miihuna  or  ‘Amorous 
couple’, 

(9)  the  Archer,  which  becomes  the  ‘Bow’, 

(10)  the  Goat,  which  becomes  the  'Crocodile’, 

(11)  Water  bearer,  which  becomes  the  ‘Waterpot’. 
Some  of  them  appear  to  have  been  translations  of 
Babylonian  names. 

The  Babylonian  names,  as  interpreted  by  Ginzel* 
are  given  in  the  seventh  column,  with  their  meanings. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  the  names  of  the  zodiacal  signs 
are  originally  of  Babylonian  origin.  They  were  taken 
over  almost  without  'Sg^nge  by  the  Greeks,  and 
subsequently  by  the  Romans,  and  the  Hindus,  from 
Graeco-Chaldean  astrology. 

*  Ginzel,  Handbook  der  Mathematischen  und  Technise hen  Chrono- 
lojie ,  Vol.  I,  p.  84. 


But  why  was  such  an  odd  assortment  of  animal 
names  chossn  for  the  ‘Signs’  ?  There  have  been 
interesting  speculations.  The  reader  may  consult 
Brown’s  Researches  into  the  Origin  of  ihe  Primitive 
Constellations  of  the  Greeks,  Phoenicians  and  Babylonians, 
London,  1900. 

These  signs  were  taken  up  by  almost  all  nations  in 
the  centuries  before  the  Christian  era  on  account  of 
the  significance  attached  to  them  by  astrologers.  In 
Greece,  they  were  first  supposed  to  have  been 
introduced  by  the  early  Greek  astronomer  Cleostratos, 
an  astronomer  who  observed  about  532  B.C.  in  the 
island  of  Tenedos  off  the  Hellespont  who  introduced 
the  designation  ‘Zodiac’  to  describe  the  belt  of  stars 
about  the  ecliptic.  The  twelve  ‘Zodical  Signs’  are 
not  known  in  older  ritualistic  Indian  literature  like 
the  Brahmanas.  They  appear  to  have  come  to  India 
in  the  wake  of  the  Macedonian  Greeks  or  of  nations 
like  the  Sakas  who  were  intermediaries  for  trans¬ 
mission  of  Greek  culture  to  India. 

Confusion  in  the  starting  point  of  the  Zodiac 

The  ‘Initial  Point’  of  the  zodiac  should  be  the 
Vernal  Point  or  the  point  of  intersection  of  the  ecliptic 
and  the  equator,  but  as  will  be  shown  in  the  next 
section,  this  point  is  not  fixed,  but  moves  west-ward 
along  the  ecliptic  at  the  rate  'of  approximately  50"  per 
year  (precession  of  the  equinoxes).  This  motion  is 
unidirectional,  but  before  Newton  proved  it  to  be  so  in 
1687  from  dynamics  and  the  law  of  gravitation,  there 
was  no  unanimity  even  amongst  genuine  astronomers 
about  the  uni-directional  nature  of  precessional 
motion,  inspite  of  overwhelming  observational 
evidences. 


194 


REPORT  OF  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


The  hesitation  of  the  medieval  astronomers  in 
accepting  precession  can  be  easily  understood.  Most 
of  them  earned  their  livelihood  by  practising  the 
‘Astrological  Cult'  which  was  reared  on  the  basis  that 
the  signs  of  the  zodiac  are  fixed,  and  coincident  with 
certain  star-groups  ;  but  this  assumption  crumbles  to 
the  ground  if  precession  is  accepted.  But  as  historical 
records  now  show,  though  astronomers  had-^clearly 
recognized  that  the  initial  point  should  be  thfe  point 
of  intersection  of  the  e.quator  and  the  ecliptic,  there 
was  no  unanimity  even  amongst  ancient  astronomers 
of  different  ages  regarding  the  location  of  this 
point  in  the  heavens,  because  it  was  not  occupied  by 
any  prominent  star  at  any  epoch  and  the  ancients 
were  unaware  of  the  importance  of  its  motion 
(vide  §  4:9). 

4.7  CHALDEAN  CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  ASTRONOMY  : 
RISE  OF  PLANETARY  AND  HOROSCOPIC  ASTROLOGY 

We  have  seen  that  it  was  the  needs  of  the 
calendar  which  gave  rise  to  scientific  astronomy — 
which  in  the  earliest  times  covered  : 


The  attention  of  mankind  was  drawn  in  remote 
antiquity  to  the  five  star-like  bodies  : 

Venus,  Jupiter,  Mars,  Saturn  and  Mercury. 

Venus  and  Jupiter  and  occasionally  Mars  are  more 
brilliant  than  ordinary  stars.  Sooner  or  later  it  was 
found  that  while  the  ordinary  stars  remain  fixed  on 
the  revolving  heavens  these  five  stars  creep  along 
them,  as  a  modern  author  puts  it,  ‘like  glow-worms 
on  a  whirling  globe',  each  in  its  own  way.  Venus 
appears  as  a  morning  and  evening  star,  the  maximum 
elongation  being  47°.  It  early  drew  the  attention  of 
sea-faring  people,  its  appearance  on  the  eastern  horizon 
indicating  early  sunrise  to  persons  on  lonely  seas. 
But  it  took  mankind  some  time  to  discover  that  it  was 
the  same  luminary  which  appeared  for  some  period  as 
a  morning  star,  then  as  an  evening  star.  Its  brilliance 
could  not  but  strike  the  imagination  of  mankind. 
Mercury  also  appears  regularly  as  morning  and  everting 
star,  and  it  must  have  been  discovered  later  than 
Venus,  but  still  at  such  a  remote  age  in  antiquity  that 
all  traces  of  its  discovery  are  lost. 

The  motion  of  the  brilliant  luminary,  Jupiter 
across  the  sky  attracted  early  attention  ;  Mars 


Fig.  11-^Showing  the  retrograde  motion  of  Mars. 

Although  the  planets  always  move  in  the  same  direction  round  the  suu,  theirapparent  motion  among 
the  fixed  stars  as  seen  from  the  earth,  is  not  always  in  the  same  forward  direction.  They  sometimes 
appear  to  move  also  in  the  backward  direction  among  the  stars,  and  this  is  known  as  the  retrograde 
motion  of  a  planet.  The  above  figure  reproduced  from  Pictorial  Astronomy  by  Alter  and  Cleminshaw 
illustrates  how  Mars  was  seen  to  retrograde  during  June  24  to  August  24. 


(a)  Systematic  observation  of  the  m&Wifeents  of 
the  moon,  and  the  sun, 

(b)  Recording  of  the  observations  in  some 
convenient  form  on  permanent  materials, 

(c)  Invention  of  mathematical  methods  to  deal 
with  the  observations,  with  a  view  to  predict 
astronomical  evaafrg. 

It  is  not,  however,  correct  to  say  that  it  was  the 
calendar  based  qn  the  sun  and  the  moon  which 
provided  the  sole  stimulus  for  astronomical  studies. 
At  one  time,  “the  planets  strongly  captured  the  attention 
of  man 

*  A.  1  .anekoek  :  The  Origin  of  Astronomy,  p.  35lv 


occasionally  bursts  into  brilliance  with  fierce,  red 
light,  which  could  not  but  attract  notice.  The  three 
planets,  Mars,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn  though  generally 
moving  to  the  east,  from  time  to  time  reverse  their 
direction  of  motion  (retrograde  motion),  as  shown 
in  Fig.  11. 

From  very  early  times  and  amongst  widely 
separated  communities,  mystical  importance  was 
ascribed  to  the  wandering  of  the  planets. 

These  mystical  ideas  took  a  very  deficit*  form  in 
the  shape  of  'Planetary  Astrology’  which  grew  in 
Mesopotamia  during  the  period  1300  B.C.  to  800  B.C. 
This  Planetary  Astrology  is  to  be  distinguished  from 


CALENDAR!©  ASTRONOMY 


i95 


an  elder  form  jof  Astrology  widely  found,  in  Vedic 
India,  which  centred  mainly  round  the  moon,  and  the 
lunar  mansions,  and  to  a.  lesser  extent  on  the  sun. 
The  conjunction  of  the  moon  with  certain  nakgatras 
was  considered  lucky,  others  unlucky  (vide  §  4-1). 

Planetary  Astrology  took  the  world  by  the 
storm  after  300  B.C.  and  its  influence  was  strongest 
during  middle  ages  in  Europe,  till  the  rise  of 
rationalism  and  modern  science  almost  completely 
undermined  this  influence.  But  it  still  survives  amongst 
the  credulous  in  the  West,  but  to  a  far  greater  extent 
than  amongst  the  eastern  nations. 


emerged  in  Babylonian  history  from  the  time  of 
Assyrian  supremacy  ( ca .  1300  B.C.),  for  these  appeared 
to  be  linked  up  with  the  mysteries  of  Heaven  itself, 
and  the  astrologer  enjoyed  very  great  prestige  amongst 
the  public,  for  did  he  not  possess  the  mysterious  power 
of  foretelling  correctly  the  dates  of  eclipses  ! 

Here  are  some  of  the  samples  of  astronomical 
omina  during  the  last  centuries  of  Assyrian  power 
(900  B.C. -600  B.C.). 

“Mercury  went  back  as  far  as  the  Pleiades”  ;  “Jupiter 
enters  Cancer”  ;  “Venus  appears  in  the  East”  ;  “Mars  is 
very  bright";  “Jupiter  appears  in  the  region  of  Orion"  ; 


By  placiug  the  sun  at  the  centre  and  having  the  earth  and  the  other  planets  revolve  in  circles  around 
it,  Copernicus  (1473-1543)  was  able  to  explain  the  backward  motion  of  the  planets  among  the  stars  much 
more  simply  than  in  the  Ptolemaic  system.  This  is  illustrated  in  the  above  figure,  taken  from  Pictorial 
Astronomy,  in  the  case  of  Mars  as  seen  from  the  earth.  The  earth’s  speed  is  18 J  miles  a  second  while  that 
of  Mars  is  only  15  miles  a  second.  As  the  earth  overtakes  Mars,  the  latter  seems  to  move  backward.  The 
direct  motion  of  Mars  to  the  east  is  shown  at  positions  1, 2  and  3.  backward  or  retrograde  motion  to  the 
west  at  4  and  5,  and  direct  motion  to  the  east  again  at  6  and  7. 


What  was  the  reason  for  the  strong  fascination 
which  man  has  for  astrology  ? 

Mankind  has  always  a  psychological  weakness 
for  omina,  i.e.,  some  signs  which  can  predict  future 
events,  good  or  bad.  The  older  form  of  omina 
were  rather  crude,  vix.,  flight  of  certain  birds  like  the 
crow,  or  movements  of  animals  like  the  jackal  or  the 
snake,  howlings  of  certain  birds  and  animals.  In  many 
countries,  sheep  and  goats  were  sacrificed  to  gods  on 
the  eve  of  great  enterprises,  and  Augurs  claimed  to 
be  able  to  interpret  the  intentions  pf  the  gods 
from  an  examination  of  lines  and  convolutions  on 
the -liver  of  the -sacrificial  animal  (  Hepatoscopy  ). 
Meteorological  phenomena  such  as  a  lightning 
discharge,  haloes  round  the  moon,  aurora  were  also 
regarded  as  ‘omens’. 

The  older1  forms  of  omina  were  all  apparently  very 
crude  compared  to  planetary  omina  which  gradually 


“Mars  stands  in  Scorpio,  turns  and  goes  forth  with 
diminished  brilliancy”  ;  “Saturn  has  appeared  in  the  Lion”  ; 
“Mars  approached  Jupiter”  ;  and  so  on. 

There  is  net  a  trace  of  scientific  interest  in  these  texts  ; 
the  mind  of  the  reporters  is  entirely  occupied  by  the  omens  : 
"When  such  or  such  happens, 

“it  is  lucky  for  the  king,  my  lord”  ; 
or,  “copious  floods  will  come”  ; 

“there  will  be  devastation”  ; 

“the  crops  will  be  diminished”  ; 

“the  king  will  be  besieged”  ; 

“the  enemy  will  be  slain”  ; 

‘there  will  be  raging  of  lions  and  wolves”  ; 

‘the  gods  intend  Akkad  for  happiness”  ; 
and  so  on. 

Yet,  with  all  those  observations,  these  reports  represent 
a  considerable  astronomical  activity.  For  the  first  time 
in  history1  a  large  number  of  data  on  the  planets  had  been 


C.R.— 33 


196 


REPOET  OF  THE  CALENDAR  REEORM  COMMITTEE 


collected  ;  it  implies  a  detailed  knowledge  of  facts  about 
their  motion.”* 

The  huge  temples,  called  Ziggurats,  ruins  of  which 
have  been  found  in  Mesopotamia,  are  supposed  to  have 
been  dedicated  to  the  planetary  gods,  each  storey  being 
assigned  to  a  particular  god.  It  was  the  duty  of  temple 
priests  to  keep  the  planets  under  observation,  and 
record  their  positions  on  the  only  writing  material 
available  then  vix.,  clay-tablets.  Hundreds  of  thousands 
such  clay  tablets  have  been  discovered  in  the  ruins  of 
Ziggurats,  royal  palaces  and  libraries,  and  patiently 
interpreted  by  western  scholars  like  Kugler. 


the  moon,  and  the  planets,  and  compilation  of  tables 
of  positions,  which  afforded  the  basis  on  which  modern 
astronomy  has  been  built  up.  In  the  large  number  of 
ancient  horoscopes  which  have  been  studied  by 
scholars,  and  in  the  astronomical  tables  compiled  by 
ancient  and  medieval  scholars,  we  have  a  huge 
amount  of  data  on  planets. 

Pannekoek  observes  : 

“The  circumstance  that  made  this  possible  for  astro¬ 
nomy  was  the  occurrence  of  extremely  simple  and  striking 
periodicities  in  the  celestial  phenomena.  What  looked 
irregular  on  occasional  and  superficial  observing  revealed 


Fig.  13— Ziggurat. 

(Reproduced  from  Zinner’s  Qesehdchte  der  Sternkunde ) 


'At  first,  planetary  astrology  appear  to  have  been 
confined  to  states,  and  kings  or  powerful  officials 
representing  the  state.  But  after  the  conquest  of 
Babylon  by  the  Persian  conqueror  Cyrus  (538  B.C.), 
they  appear  to  have  been  extended  to  private 
individuals.  Thus  came  into  existence  ‘Horoscopic 
Astrology’,  in  which  a  chart  is  made  of  the  12  signs 
of  the  zodiac  with  the  position  of  the  planets  shown 
therein,  for  the  time  of  his  birth,  from  which  are 
foretold  the  events  of  his  life  and  career.  We  are 
not  interested  in  ‘Horoscopic  Astrology’  at  all,  but 
wish  dnly  to  remark  that  but  for  the  stimulus  provided 
by  astrology,  there  would  not  have  been  that  intense 
activity  during  anfci*nt  and  (from  about  500  B.C.) 
medieval  times,  for  large  scale  observations  of  the  sun. 


*.  Pannekoek :  The  Origin  of  Astronomy—, reprinted  from  the 
Monthly  Notices  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society,  Vol  .III, 
No,  4,  1951,  pp.  351-52. 


its 


regularity  in  a  continuous  abundance  of  data. 


Fig.  14 — Showing  a  horoscope  cast  in  the  European  method. 
Theijsign  Aries,  the  first  house  or  ascendant,  is  in  the  east. 
The  sign  Capricomus,  the  10th  house,  is  on  the  meridian  at  the 
time  of  birth  and  so  is  in  the  south.  The  planets  occupying 
the  different  signs  are  shown  by  the  respective  symbols. 


CALENDARIO  ASTRONOMY 


197 


Regularities  were  not  sought  for  ;  but  regularities  imposed 
themselves,  without  giving  surprise.  They  aroused  certain 
expectations.  Expectation  is  the  first  unconscious  form  of 
generalized  knowledge,  like  all  technical  knowledge  in  daily 
life  growing  out  of  practical  experience.  Then  gradually  the 
expectation  develops  into  prediction,  an  indication  that  the 
rule,  the  regularity,  has  entered  consciousness.  In  the 
celestial  phenomena  the  regularities  appear  as  fixed  periods, 
after  which  the  same  aspects  return.  Knowledge  of  the 
periods  was  the  first  form  of  astronomical  theory”. 

The  astronomical  knowledge  which  the  Chaldean 
astronomers  bequeathed  to  the  world  are  :  — 

(1)  Conception  of  the  celestial  equator  and 
racognition  of  the  ecliptic  as  the  sun’s  path. 

(2)  A  number  of  relations  between  the  synodic 
and  other  periods  of  the  moon  and  planets,  vix., 

1  year  =  12.36914  lunar  months  ; 

modern  value  =  12.36827  lunar  months. 

Mean  daily  motion  of  the  sun  =  59'  9"  ; 
modern  value  =  59'  8". 3. 

Mean  daily  motion  of  the  moon  =  13°  10'  35"  : 
modern  value‘s  13°  10'  35".0 

Extreme  values  of  the  true  motion  of  the  moon  : 
15°  14'  35"  to  11°  6'  35  . 

According  to  modern  determination  these  limits 
are  about  15°  23'  to  11°  46'. 

Length  of  the  anomalistic  month  =  27.55555  days  ; 
modern  value  =  27.55455  days. 

Or  9  anomalistic  months  =  248  days  ; 
modern  value  =  247.991  days. 

Length  of  the  synodic  month  =  29.530594  days  ; 
modern  value  =  29.530588  days. 

223  synodic  months  =  242  draconitic  months. 

This  gave  rise  to  the  Chaldean  Saros  cycle 
of  eclipses. 

269  anomalistic  months  =  251  synodic  months. 

The  length  of  the  anomalistic  month 
deduced  from  this  relation  =  27.554569  days, 
the  modern  value  being  27.554550  days. 

The  Greek  papyri  gives  longitudes  of  the  moon  for 
dates  248  days  apart.  This  period  is  based  on  the 
Babylonian  relation  :  9  anomalistic  months  =  248  days. 

After  eleven  such  step*iaf  248  days,  there  is  a  big  step 
of  303  days  in  the  ephemeris.  The  length  of  the 
anomalistic  month  derived  from  these  steps  are  as 
follows. 


Tannekoek  :  The  Origin  of  Astronomy,  p.  352. 


No.  of  anomalistic  No.  of  Length  of  the 


months 

days 

anomalistic  month 
derived 

D  . 

.  9 

248 

27555,556  days 

A  . 

.  11 

303 

27.545,455 

C  =  11D+ A.. 

.  110 

3031 

27.554,545 

Actual  value =27.554,550  „ 

It  is  not  sure  whether  these  figures  were  arrived  at 
by  the  Babylonians  or  by  astronomers  of  other  places. 
But  these  and  the  more  accurate  approximation  of  the 
moon’s  motion  is  found  in  the  Paftca  SiddhaniikS,  of 
Varahamihira  and  is  found  used  by  Tamil  astronomers. 

In  the  Paflca  Siddhantiks.  the  synodic  revolutions  of 
planets  are  given,  but  they  apparently  differ  much 
from  the  actual  figures.  The  figures  are  quoted  in 
col.  (2)  of  the  table  No.  9  below.  The  actual  periods  of 
the  synodic  revolutions  in  days  are  given  in  col.  (3). 


Table  9. 
of  planets 

—Synodic  revolutions 
from  Parica -Siddhantika. 

Planet 

As  given 

Actual 

Converted  / 

in  P.S. 

(days) 

Col.  (2) 

(1) 

(2) 

(3) 

(days) 

(4) 

Mars 

768| 

779.936 

779.944 

Mercury 

114-57 

115.878 

115.870 

Jupiter 

393* 

398.884 

398.868 

Venus 

575* 

583.921 

583.880 

Saturn 

372| 

378.092 

378.093 

Dr.  Thibaut  in  his  Pattca  Siddhantika  could  not 
explain  the  figures  in  col.  (2).  It  can  be  verified  that 
we  can  obtain  the  figures  in  col.  (3)  if  we  multiply  the 
corresponding  figures  in  col.  (2)  by 


365.2422 

360 


or  by  (1  + 


5.2422. 
360  } 


The  figures  obtained  by  such  multiplication  are 
shown  in  col.  (4),  which  are  found  to  be  very  close 
to  the  fgures  in  col.  (3).  The  figures  in  col.  (2)  can  be 
explained  in  another  way,  vix.,  they  are  in  degrees 
representing  the  arc  through  which  the  sun  moves 
between  two  conjunctions.  In  other  words,  the 
figures  in  col.  (2),  not  being  ordinary  mean  solar  days, 
are  'saura  days'  of  Indian  astronomy,  a  saura  day 
being  the  time  taken  by  the  sun  to  move  through  one 
degree  by  mean  motion,  or  360  saura  days =365.2422 
mean  solar  days.  This  explanation  has  been  found  by 
O.  Neugebauer  {vide  his  Exact  Sciences  in  Antiquity). 
Most  of  these  data  were  known  to  Hipparchos  and  also 
to  Geminus,  a  Greek  astronomer,  who  flourished  about 
70  B.C. 

The  “astronomical  science’’  as  evolved  by  the 
Chaldean  astronomers,  is  seen  to  be  in  reality  the  by- 


198 


BEPOET  OF  THE  CALENDAB  BEFOEM  COMMITTEE 


product  of  the  huge  amount  of  astrological  nonsense, 
a  few  pearls  in  a  huge  mass  of  dung,  as  Alberuni 
observed  nearly  ten  centuries  ago.  Let  us  see  when 
these  '‘pearls"  gradually  crystallized  out  of  the 
dung-heap. 

Two  texts  called  ‘Mul  Apin’  dated  round  about 
700  B.C.  have  been  discovered  which  contain  summary 
of  the  astronomical  knowledge  of  the  time.  Here  is 
one  of  the  pertinent  passages  from  Neugebauer’s 
Exact  Sciences  in  Antiquity  (p.  96). 

“They  are  undoubtedly  based  on  older  material.  They 
contain  a  summary  of  the  astronomical  knowledge  of  their 
time.  The  first  tablet  is  mostly  concerned  with  the  fixed 
stars  which  are  arranged  in  three  “roads”,  the  middle 
one  being  an  equatorial  belt  of  about  30°  width.  The 
second  tablet  concerns  the  planets,  the  moon,  the  seasons, 
lengths  of  shadow,  and  related  problems.  These  texts  are 
incompletely  published  and  even  the  published  parts  are 
full  of  difficulties  in  detail.  So  much,  however,  is  clear  : 
we  find  here  a  discussion  of  elementary  astronomical 
concepts,  still  quite  descriptive  in  character  but  on  a  purely 
rational  basis.  The  data  on  risings  and  settings,  though 
still  in  a  rather  schematic  form,  are  our  main  basis  for 
the  identification  of  the  Babylonian  constellations.” 

The  passage  indicates  that  the  Chaldean  astro¬ 
nomers  of  this  period  could  locate  the  north  pole,  and 
had  come  to  an  idea  of  the  celestial  equator,  and  could 


cuts  the  horizon  at  the  east  and  west  points  as  deter¬ 
mined  by  the  gnomon. 

The  Ecliptic  : _ From  archaeological  records,  it  is 

generally  held  that  a  knowledge  of  the  star-groups  lying 


Fig.  15 — Two  sculptured  stones  of  ancient  Babylon  displaying  the 
Sun,  the  Moon,  Venus  and  Scorpion— symbols  of  a  primitive  astro¬ 
logical  science  which  fathered  the  modem  conception  of  astronomy. 

close  to  the  ecliptic  was  obtained  in  Babylon  as  early  as 


Fig.  16 — Babylonian  Boundary  Stone  showing  Pythagorian  numbers  (Plimpton  322). 
(Reproduced  from  Neugebauer’s  Exact  Sciences  in  Antiquity) 


trace  it  in  the  heavens.  We  do  not.  know  when  1300  B.C.,  for  some  of  the  ecliptic  star-groups  like  the 

they  came  to  the  knowledge  that  the  celestial  equator  Cancer,  or  Scorpion  are  found  portrayed  on  boundary 


CALENDARIC  ASTRONOMY 


199 


stones  which  can  be  dated  1300  B.C.  Neugebauer 
and  Sachs  maintain  that  the  ecliptic  is  first  found 
mentioned  in  a  Babylonian  text  of  419  B.C.,  but  its 
use  as  a  reference  plane  must  have  started  much 
earlier*  probably  before  550  B.C.  But  the  steps  by 
which  the  knowledge  of  stars  marking  the  ecliptic 


Probably  the  first  stage  was  to  determine  the 
angular  distance  of  heavenly  bodies  from  some 
‘Normal  Stars’  as  indicated  by  Sachs.*  These  normal 
stars  were  stars  either  on  the  ecliptic,  like  Regulus, 
Spica,  or  a  Librae  or  some  other  stars  close  to  it.  Sachs 
gives  a  list  of  34  such  normal  stars.  Probably  the 


Fig.  17— Babylonian  Boundary  atone  allowing  lunar  ephemeria 
engraved  on  it  (A.  3412  Rev.)  ( Exact  Sciences  in  Antiquity) 


was  obtained,  are  not  yet  known  with  precision. 
Only  some  guesses  can  be  made. 

The  early  astronomers  probably  observed  that  the 
bright  stars  Regulus  (  a  Leonis  ),  Spica  (  a  Virginis), 
the  conspicuous  group  Pleiades,  and  certain  fainter 
stars  a  Librae ,  a  Scorvii  were  almost  on  the  sun  s 
path.  The  ecliptic  could  be  roughly  constructed' by 
joining  these  stars. 

‘Regulus’  or  a  Leonis  was  the  'Royal  Star’  in 
Babylonian  mythology.  In  Indian  classics,  it  is  known 
as  Magha  (  or  the  Great )  and  the  presiding  deity  is 
Jndra,  the  most  powerful  Vedic  god.  It  is  almost 
exactly  on  the  ecliptic.  Cilra  (  or  a  Virginis  )  is  2°  to 
the  south. 

The  First  Point  of  Aries  The  first  point  of  Aries 
is  the  fiducial  point  from  which  all  astronomical 
measurements  are  made.  But  how  was  this  point,  or 
any  other  cardinal  point,  say  the  first  point  of  Cancer 
(summer  solstice),  the  first  point  of  Capricornus 
(  winter  solstice  )  and  the  first  point  of  Libra,  wefe 
located  on  the  circle  of  the  ecliptic  in  early,  times  ? 

For  rarely  have  the  first  point  of  Aries  nor  any 
other  of  the  cardinal-points  been  occupied  by  prominent 
stars  during  historical  times.  Even  if  for  measurement, 
the  ancient  astronomers  used  some  kind  of  astrono¬ 
mical  instrument,  say  the  armillary  sphere,  it  would 
be  difficult  for  them  to  locate  the  first  point  of  Aries 
correct  within  a  degree. 


ecliptic  positions  of  these  normal  stars  were 
determined  after  some  effort  by  some  method  not  yet 
known,  and  then  the  positions  of  other  heavenly 


Fig.  18— Armillary  sphere. 

.  (Reproduced  from  Encyclopaedia  Britannica). 

bodies  referred  to  the  first  point  of  Aries  or  the 
beginning  of  a  sign  could  be  found.  The  early 
observations  are  rough  and  no  accuracy  of  less  than  a 
degree  is  claimed  by  any  classical  scholar  for  them. 

*  A.  Sachs,  Babylonian  Horoscopes,  p.  53,  Joumal  oj  Cuneiform 
Studies,  Vol.  VI.  No.  2. 


200 


REPORT  OP  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


Precession  of  Equinoxes  : — But  the  first  point  of 
Aries  is  not  a  fixed  point  on  the  ecliptic,  though  all 
ancient  astronomers  belived  it  to  be  fixed  once  for  all. 
It  moves  steadily  to  the  west  at  the  rate  of  50"  per 


Ptolemy’s  first  point  of  Aries  T  is  4°  to  the  west 
of  Hipparchcs’s. 

Clay  tablet  records  have  been  obtained  in 
Mesopotamia  which  have  been  interpreted  as  represen- 


magnitudes. 
First  • 
Second  • 

Third  • 
Fourth  . 

Fifth 


POSITIONS  OF  THE  FIRST  POINT  OF 
ARIES  (T)  IN  DIFFERENT  TIMES. 

V—  Vedic  Times  ahovi  2300  B.C. 
H=  Hipparchoj  140  B.C. 

Pt.—  Piolemy  ISO  A.D, 

Si  —  SOryo  Sid<ihSnio 
S,= 


3,=  ■; 

M  =  M  edern 


285  AD. 
500  AD. 
570  AD. 
1950  AD. 


Fig.  19— The  Zodiac  through  ages. 


year.  Astronomers  of  different  ages  must  have  given 
measurements  of  stellar  positions  from  observations 
made  either  during  their  own  times,  or  from 
observations  made  by  their  predecessors,  quite 
unconscious  of  th»  fact  that  the  reference  point  had 
shifted.  The  result  is  that  the  positions  of  stars  given 
by  different  astronomers  of  antiquity  do  not  tally,  and 
the  positions  given  by  the  same  astronomer  are  not  always 
consistent  This  is  illustrated  in.  Fig.  19  of  the  Zodiac. 

Let  us  take  Hipparchos’s  First  point  of  Aries  T  as 
our  standard  point. 


ting  two  systems  of  Ephemeris  known  as  Systems  A  and 
B.  System  B  indicates  that  the  vernal  point  is  Aries  8°. 
This  indicates  that  the  observations  were  taken  about 
550  years  before  Ptolemy.  This  coincides  approxi¬ 
mately  with  the  time  of  the  Chaldean  astronomer 
Kidinnu,  who  observed  at  Borsippa  near  Babylon,  and 
is  taken  to  be  the  author  of  the  nineteen-year  cycle. 
System  A  uses  Aries  10°  as  the  vernal  point  ;  the 
author  of  this  system  might  have  flourished  120-150 
years  before  Kidinnu,  and  may  be  identified  with 
Naburiannu,  son.of  Balatu,  who  flourished  about  490 


CALENDARIC  ASTRONOMY 


B.C.  Older  still  is  the  use  of  Aries  15°  by  Eudoxus  of 
Cnidus,  the  first  Greek  astronomer  to  start  a  geometri¬ 
cal  theory  of  planetary  motion.  This  refers  to 
observations  dating  from  about  810  B.C.  These  dates, 
before  they  are  accepted,  should  receive  independent 
verification. 

The  Use  of  Spherical  Co-ordinates 

The  ancient  astronomers  were  interested  primarily 
in  the  moon  and  the  planets  but  later  about  150  B.C., 
Hipparchos  gives  lists  of  fixed  stars  as  well  with  their 
positions. 

It  was  clearly  observed  that  though  these  planets 
keep  near  the  ecliptic,  they  deviate  by  small  amounts 
sometimes  to  the  north,  sometimes  to  the  south.  In 
the  case  of  the  moon,  the  maximum  deviation  amounts 
to  nearly  5°  (inclination  of  the  moon's  orbit  to  the 
ecliptic).  In  the  case  of  planets,  excepting  in  the  case 
of  Mercury  and  Venus,  the  deviation  was  not  large. 

In  the  case  of  the  moon,  a  knowledge  of  the  moon’s 
celestial  latitude  was  necessary  for  prediction  of 
eclipses  and  therefore  both  the  celestial  longitude  and 
latitude  used  to  „  be  recorded  by  the  Chaldean  astro¬ 
nomers  of  the  Seleucidean  period.  In  the  case  of  planets, 
only  the  celestial  longitude  appear  to  have  been  used. 

The  Chaldean  astronomers  were  the  first  to  frame 
lunar  and  planetary  ephemerides  ( i.e .  calculation  in 
advance  of  lunar  and  planetary  positions — the  pre¬ 
cursor  of  modern  Nautical  Almanacs  and  Ephemerides) 
from  about  500  B.C.  But  during  these  times,  neither 
the  knowledge  of  the  sphere  nor  of  spherical  or 
plane  trigonometry  had  developed.  The  Chaldeans 
had  only  developed  the  ideas  of  angular  measurement 
which  they  expressed  in  degrees,  minutes  and  seconds, 
the  whole  circle  being  divided  into  360°  degrees. 
Their  methods,  which  have  been  elucidated  by 
Neugebauer,  Sachs  and  others  were  arithemetical. 
They  took  maximum  and  minimum  values  of  astrono- 
nomical  quantities,  and  interpolated  for  an  inter¬ 
mediate  period,  assuming  the  change  to  be  linear 
(zigzag  function,  vide  Neugebauer,  Exact  Sciences  in 
Antiquity,  Chap.  V,  Babylonian  Astronomy). 

It  was  the  Greeks  who  intrbduced  geometrical 
methods  to  deal  with  positions  of  heavenly  bodies, 
and  made  the  next  great  advance  in  astronomy.  But 
they  developed  trigonometry  only  to  a  rudimentary 
stage  ( vide  §  4-8).  But  they  also  used  Babylonian 
arithmetical  methods  alternately.  Thus  while  Ptolemy 
uses  the  trigonometric  Chord  functions  in  his  Syntaxis, 
in  the  astrological  text,  called  Tetrabiblos,  he  uses 
the  Babylonian  arithmetical  methods. 

Though  the  calendar,  as  we  have  seen,  gave  the 
first  stimulus  for  the  cultivation  of  the  astronomical 


201 

science,  the  use  of  astronomy  for  perfecting  the 
calender  appears  in  the  West  to  have  come  to  a  stop 
after  the  Seleucidean  era.  For  Rome  conquered  the 
whole  western  Asia  up  to  the  Euphrates  by  about 
80  A.  D.,  and  the  Julian  calendar  replaced  the 
Babylonian  luni-solar  calendar,  which  have,  however, 
continued  to  currency  probably  in  limited  regions  like 
Syria,  Arabia  and  Iraq  amongst  certain  communities. 
The  Sassanid  Persians  also  followed  their  own  solar 
calendars  inherited  from  Acheminid  times.  But  the 
elements  of  the  Chaldean  luni-solar  calendar  have 
been  used  in  a  limited  way,  for  the  Christian 
ecclesiastic  calendar  for  Christianity  arose  in  Palestine 
and  Syria,  and  the  most  important  event  in  Christ’s 
life,  His  crucifixion,  is  recorded  in  terms  of  the 
luni-solar  calendar  prevalent  in  Palestine  about  the 
first  century  A.D. 

4.8  GREEK  CONTRIBUTION  TO  ASTRONOMY 

It  has  been  considered  neccessary  to  give  a  short 
account  of  Greek  contributions  to  astronomy,  because 
there  is  a  widespread  vijw  that  it  was  Greek  astro¬ 
nomy  which  fprmed  the  basis  of  calendar  reform  in 
India  which  took  place  about  400  A.D.  (  Siddhanta 
Jyoti$a  calendar).  Let  us  see  how  far  this  view  is 
correct.  The  Greeks  themselves  appear  to  have  made 
no  use  of  astronomy  for  the  reform  of  their  own 
calendars,  as  was  done  later  in  India.  They  cultivated 
astronomy  partly  as  pure  science,  partly  as  an 
indispensable  adjunct  to  astrology. 

It  is  now  well-known  that  Greek  civilization  had  a 
long  past  going  back  to  at  least  1500  B.C.  The  remains 
of  this  civilization  have  been  found  in  Crete  (Minoan), 
and  on  the  Greek  mainland  itself  (Mycenean). 
Inscriptions  have  been  found  in  strange  scripts  (Linear 

A,  and  B)  which  defied  decipherment  till  1952.  We 
have  therefore  as  yet  no  knowledge  of  the  calendar  in 
the  Mycenean  age  of  Greece  (1400  B.C. — 1000  B.C.), 
but  probably  they  will  now  be  forthcoming. 

The  Homeric  poems  ‘Iliad’  and  ‘ Odyssey ’  written 
about  900  B.C.,  as  well  as  Hesiod  writing  about  700 

B. C.  show  considerable  acquaintance  of  stars  and 
constellations  needed  for  sea-faring  people,  to  find  out 
their  orientation  when  out  at  sea. 

From  about  750  B.C.,  the  Greek  city-states  began 
to  emerge  ;  they  were  engaged  in  maritime  trade  over 
the  whole  Mediterranean  basin.  These  activities 
brought  them  into  contact  with  many  older  nations 
who  had  attained  a  high  standard  Of  civilization,  e.g., 
the  Egyptians,  the  nations  of  the  Near  East,  viz.,  the 
Lydians,  the  Phoenicians,  and  the  Assyrians  and 
imbibed  many  elements  of  their,  civilization,.  The 
older  Greek  scholars  themselves  .admit  that  the  Greeks 


REPORT  OP  TEE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


202 

borrowed  their  script*  from  the  Phoenician?,  their 
coinage  from  the  Lydians,  their  preliminary  ideas  of 
geometry  from  the  Egyptians  and  of  astronomy  from 
the  Chaldeans.  But  they  enriched  all  these  sciences 
beyond  ■  measure  by  their  own  original  thoughts 
and  contributions.  As  Plato  (428-348  B.C.)  proudly 
remarks  :  whatever  the  Greeks  acquire  from  foreigners , 

is  turned  by  them  into  something  nobler." 

Greek  science  goes  no  further  back  thanlTbVles 
of  Miletus  (624-548  B.C. ),  who  is  reckoned  tavbe  .  the 
first  of  the  seven  sages  of  Greece.  Considerable 
knowledge  of  astronomy  and  physics  was  ascribed  to 
him  by  later  writers.  He  is  supposed  to  have  predicted 
the  occurrence  of  an  almost  total  solar  eclipse,  which 
occurred  on  May  28,  585  B.C.,  on  the  basis  of  his 
knowledge  of  the  Chaldean  Saros.  These  stories  are 
now  disbelieved  by  scholars  well  versed  in  Assyriology, 
for  according  to  their  finding,  the  Chaldeans  them¬ 
selves  before  400  B.C.,  had  no  knowledge  of  the  Saros 
of  18  years  10*  days  used  later  to  predict  the  eclipses, 
but  they  used  other  methods  with  only  partial  success. 
Thales  might  have  used  one  of  these  methods,  but  not 
certainly  the  Chaldean  Saros.  Considering  the  crude 
state  of  Greek  civilization  in  Thales’  times,  these 
scholars  think  that  it  is  a  fairytale  of  modern  times 
that  Thales  knew  anything  about  the  Saros.  Thales 
lived  in  a  coastal  city  of  Asia  Minor  which  had  active 
contact  with  the  great  civilizations  of  the  Near  East, 
and  probably  much  of  the  knowledge  ascribed  to  him 
were  picked  up  from  Babylon  and  Egypt. 

The  next  figure  in  Greek  astronomy  is  Anaximander, 
(  610-545  B.C. ),  likewise  of  Miletus  a  junior  contem¬ 
porary  of  Thales,  who  is  said  to  have  introduced  the 
use  of  the  gnomon  (  vide  §  4‘3).  This  may  be  conceded, 
but  this  practice  was  derived  most  probably  from  the 
Chaldeans,  who  used  the  gnomon  from  much  earlier 
times,.  Cleostratos  (  530  B.C.  )  of  Tenedos  wars  cited 
by  later  authors  to  have  introduced  the  knowledge  of 
the  zodiac,  of  the  eight-year  cycle  of  intercalations  in 
Greece,  but  probably  he  merely  transmitted  the 
Babylonian  knowledge  and  practice.  Meton  of  Athens 
is  said  to  have  introduced  the  nineteen-year  cycle  of 
7  intercalary  months  in  Athens  in  432  B.C.»  but  as 
remarked  earlier,  its  use  in  Greek  calendars  cannot 
be  dated  before  342  B.C.,  though  it  was  known  in 
Babylon  from  at  least  383  B.C.  The  question  of 
priority  of  this  discovery  is  still  to  be  decided, 
probably*  by  fresh  finds  and  interpretation  of  ancient 
astronomical  rec<5*4# 

*  It  appears  that  the  Greeks  of  Homeric  poems  used  linear  A 
and  B,  but  about  900  B.C. ,  they  borrowed  the  simpler  Phoenician 
script  and'  adopted  it  to  their  use  by  the  addition  of  vowels. 
Thereby  they  forgot  their  old  script  and  history,  which  became  myth 
and  legend.  The  decipherment  of  Minoan  Linear  B  has '  been 
achieved  in  1952  by  Ventris  and  Chadwick. 


We  have  besides  philosophers  of  the  Pythagorian 
school  (500-300  B.  C.  ),  a  religious  brotherhood 
which  cultivated  .  geometry,  astronomy,  physics  and 
mathematics.  .  They  are  cited  by  later  writers  to 
have  propagated  the  view  that  the  earth  was 
a  sphere,  and  the  planets  were  also  spherical  bodies 
like  the  earth,  but  it  is  difficult  to  state  when,  and 
on  what  grounds  these  theories  were  first  propounded. 

These  were  the  periods  of  tutelage.  Greek  genius  in 
astronomy  began  to  flower  only  after  400  B.C.,  and 
was  aided  by  a  number  of  causes. 

The  first  was  the  development  of  geometry  as  a 
science  by  philosophers  of  the  Pythagorean  school 
(500-300  B.  C. ),  and  other  scholars,  notably 
Hippocrates  of  Chios  (  450-430  B.C. ),  and  Democritos 
of  Abdera  (  460-370  B.C. ).  A  great  impetus  to  both 
plane  and  solid  geometry  was  given  by  Plato  ( 428- 
348  B.C.  ),  famous  philosopher  and  founder  of  a 
school  of  studies  and  research  known  to  the  world  as 
the  'Academy’.  Plato  counted  amongst  his  contem¬ 
poraries  and  juniors  several  geometers  of  distinction, 
vix.,  Archytas  of  Tarentum  ( first  half  of  fourth 
century  B.C.  ),  Theaitetus  of  Athens  (  c.  380  B.C. ), 
Eudoxus  of  Cnidos  (  d.  355  B.C.  ),  and  several  others. 
All  the  geometrical  knowledge  developed  by  these  and 
other  scholars  was  compiled,  and  rewritten  into  a  . 
logical  system  with  rich  contributions  of  his  own  by 
Euclid,  who  lived  in  the  Museum  of  Alexandria 
(  280  B.C. ),  end  was  bequeathed  to  the  world  in 
thirteen  ( or  fifteen  )  books  known  as  the  Elements 
of  Euclid,  which  have  remained  to  this  day  the  basis  of 
the  teaching  of  elementary  geometry.  There  is  no 
other  book  of  science  which  have  remained  current 
and  authoritative  for  such  a  long  stretch  of  time,  now 
extending  over  two  thousand  year?. 

The  second  factor  was  political.  During  the  sixth 
and  fifth  centuries  before  Christ,  the  Greek  savants 
and  scholars  had  indeed  undertaken  educational 
journeys  to  the  Near  East  in  search  of  knowledge 
— journeys  which  were  made  possible  and  safe  under 
the  orderly  regime  of  the  Acheminid  empire  (Persian). 
But  it  was  the  conquest  of  the  Persian  empire  by 
Alexander  of  Macedon  in  330  B.C.;  which  rendered 
these  contacts  easier  and  more  fruitful.  The  Greek 
successor  dynasties,  vix.,  the  Ptolemaic  dynasty  in 
Egypt,  and  the  Seleucid  dynasty  in  Babylon  and  other 
dynasties  in  Asia^  Minor  were  all  great  patrons  of 
learning  and  encouraged  and  maintained  scholars ; 
the  former  set  up  the  famous  Museum  at  Alexandria, 
which  was.  a  research  institution  with  a  great  library, 
an  observatory  and  other  necessary  equipment.  It 
attracted  scholars  from  all  parts  of  Greater  Greece 
and  provided  them  with  free  board,  lodge  and  a  salary. 
This  place  nurtured  a  number  of  great  Greek, geniuses : 


CALENTJABIC  ASTRONOMY 


Euclid  already  mentioned ;  Eratosthenes  who  first 
measured  correctly  the  diameter  of  the  earth  and 
was  the  founder  of  scientific  chronology  ;  and  others 
whom  we  shall  meet  presently. 

On  the  Asiatic  side,  under  the  centralized  rule  of 
the  Seleucids,  the  later  Chaldean  and  Greek  astrono¬ 
mical  efforts  became  very  much  intermingled.  A 
Chaldean  priest,  Berossus,  who  lived  during  the  reign 
of  the  second  Seleucidean  king  Antiochos  Soter 
(  282-261  B.C.  ),  translated  into  Greek  the  standard 
Chaldean  works  on  astronomy  and  astrology.  The 
period  from  340  B.C.  to  150  A.D.  may  be  called  the 
most  flourishing  period  of  astronomical  studies  in 
antiquity.  The  Chaldeans  figured- prominently  during 
the  earlier  part  of  this  period  but  their  methods 
were  based  on  a  primitive  form  of  algebra  and 
arithmetic.  According  to  Neugebauer,  their  contri¬ 
butions  in  mathematics  and  astronomy  were  as  good 
as  those  of  the  contemporary  Greeks  who  used 
geometry,  but  they  gradually  faded  into  obscurity 
on  account  of  their  infatuation  with  astrology  ;  and 
the  Greeks,  though  they  were  great  believers  in 
astrology,  freed  themselves  at  least  from  astrolatry, 
and  cultivated  astronomy  as  part  of  astrology,  and 
Emerged  as  leaders  in  astronomical  science. 

The  earliest  Greek  astronomer  to  use  geometrical 
ideas  in  astronomy  is,  if  we  leave  aside  the  Pytha¬ 
goreans,  probably  Eudoxus  of  Cnidos  (  d.  355  B.C. ), 
a  junior  contemporary,  friend  and  pupil  of  Plato. 
He  made  great  original  discoveries  in  geometry,  and 
.Books  V  and  VI  of  Euclid  are  ascribed  to  him.  It 
was  probably  his  knowledge  of  geometry  which  led 
him  to  make  the  first  scientific  attempt  to  give  a 
geometrical  explanation  for  the  irregular  motions  of 
the  sun,  the  moon,  and  the  planets.  Twenty-seven 
spheres,  all  concentric  to  the  earth  were  needed  to 
account  for  these  motions.  This  theory  had  but  a 
short  life,  but  it  is  remarkable  as  the  first  instance, 
when  heavenly  bodies,  connected  with  great  gods, 
were  treated  on  a  human  level. 

Eudoxus  is  supposed  to  be  the  inventor  of 
geometrical  methods  for  determining  the  sizes  and 
distances  of  the  sun  and  the  moon,  usually  ascribed 
to  Aristarchus  of  Samos  (/Z.  280  B.C.),  who  is  known  to 
have  taught  that  the  daily  revolution  of  the  celestial 
sphere  was  due  to  the  rotation  of  the  earth  round  its 
axis.  He  .  is  also  said  to  have  first  put  forward  the 
heliocentric  theory  of  the  universe.  Neither  of  these 
theories  was  accepted  hx.  contemporary  astronomers. 
The  world  had  to  wait  for  the  appearance-of  a  Coper¬ 
nicus  (1473-1543),  for  the  acceptance  of  these  views. 

Apollonius  of  Perga  .(.Dorn  aoout  262  B.C.)  known 
more  for  his  treatise  on  Conics,  originated  the  theory 


203 

of  epicycles,  and  eccentrics  to  account  for  planetary 
motion.  He  was  a  junior  contemporary  of  two 
great  figures  :  Eratosthenes  already  mentioned  and 
-Archimedes  of  Syracuse  (287-212  B.C.),  a  great 
figure  in  mechanics,  hydrostatics  and  other  sciences, 
but  to  astronomy,  he  is  remembered  as  originator  of 
the  idea  of  Planetarium— a  revolving  open  sphere 
with  internal  mechanisms  with  which  he  could  imitate 
the  motions  of  the  sun,  the  moon,  and  the  five  planets. 

Archimedes  is  also  credited  with  attempts  for 
finding  out  the  actual  distances  of  the  planets  from  the 
earth.  We  do  not  know  whether  this  is  correct  or  not, 
but  about  this  time,  we  find  the  planets  arranged  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  order  of  their  distances  from  the  earth  : 

Moon,  Mercury,  Venus,  Sun,  Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn 
or  if  we  take  the  reverse  order  : 

Saturn,  Jupiter,  Mars,  Sun,  Venus,  Mercury,  Moon. 

This  last  order  was  taken  up  by  astrology  and  formed 
the  basis  of  the  seven-day  week,  which  came  into 
vogue  about  the  first  century  A.D. 

The  greatest  name  in  Greek  astronomy  is 
Hipparchos  of  Nicaea,  in  Bithynia  who  settled  in  the 
island  of  Rhodes  and  had  an  observatory  there 
{■ft,.  161-127  B.C.).  He  probably  corresponded  with  the 
savants  at  the  Museum  of  Alexandria.  Not  much  of 
his  writings  have  come  down  to  tis,  except  through 
quotations  and  remarks  by  Claudius  Ptolemy,  the 
famous  Alexandrian  astronomer  who  flourished  three 
centuries  later.  Sarton  writes  about  Hipparchos  r 

“It  is  possible  that  all  the  Ptolemaic  instruments,  except 
the  mural  quadant,  had  already  been  invented  by  him  (e.g. 
diopter,  parallactic  and  meridian  instruments).  He  was  the 
first  Greek  observer  who  divided  the  circles  of  his  instru¬ 
ments  into  360  degrees.  He  constructed  the  first  celestial 
globe  on  record. 

He  used  and  probably  invented  the  stereographic 
projection.  He  made  an  immense  number  of  astronomical 
observations  with  amazing  accuracy” 

The  principle  of  measurement  of  angles  was 
certainly  derived  from  the  Chaldeans.  Hipparchos  gave 
a  catalogue  of  850  stars  with  their  positions  which 
is  reproduced  in  Ptolemy’s  Syntaxis.  Vogt  found 
that  of  the  471  preserved  numbers  giving  position, 
64.  are  declinations,  67  are  right  ascensions,  340  are 
in  polar  longitudes  and  latitudes,  which  reappear  in 
the  Surya  Siddhanta,  six  hundred  years  later. 

It  is  suggested  that  after  his  discovery  of  precession 
{  vide  §  4.9  ),  Hipparchos  probably  used  celestial  longi¬ 
tudes  and '  latitudes.  But  these  co-ordinates  bad  been 
already  used  by  the  Chaldeans  at  least  a  century  earlier^ 

-  *.  .  1  i  r  '  ^  '  -  • 

Hipparchos.  had  -probably  some  knowledge  of  plane 
and  spherical  trigonometry  necessary  for  ■  the  solution 


C.  R.-34 


204 


REPORT  OF  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


of  astronomical  problems,  e.  g.,  finding  out  the  time 
of  rise  of  zodiacal  signs  during  the  year,  a  problem 
of  great  importance  to  horoscopic  astrology.  It  is  the 
current  opinion  that  he  used  the  double  chord, 
illustrated  below  : 


and  gave  a  table  of  double-chords  from  0°  to  90°, 
which  was  later  improved  by  Ptolemy  in  his  Syntaxis. 
It  is  suggested  by  Neugebauer,  that  the  ‘Sine  function' 

{ Jyd  in  Hindu  astronomy)  was  introduced  600  years 
later  by  Aryabhata,  and  replaced  the  double  chord. 
The  Hindu  astronomers  used  Utkramajya  which  is  the 
ver  sine  function,  1 — cos  a,  but  do  not  appear  to  hatfe 
used  the  cosine  function  as  such.  Neither  the  Greeks 
nor  the  Hindus  used  the  tangent,  and  the  cotangent, 
which  were  introduced  by  Arab  astronomers  about  the 
ninth  century  (al-Battani,  858-929  A.D.),  and  were 
known  in  Latin  in  early  days  as  Umbra  Versa ,  and 
Umbra  Extensa  ( extent  of  shadow )  respectively. 
These  are  reminiscent  of  the  practice  of  designating 
the  zenith  distance  Z  of  the  sun  by  the  length  l  of  the 
shadow  of  the  gnomon,  l  =  p  tan  Z,  p  being  the  height 
of  the  gnomon. 

Between  Hipparchos  and  Claudius  Ptolemy 
(150  A.D.),  who  lived  at  the  Alexandrian  Museum 
from  128  A.D.  to  151  A.D.,  there  is  a  gap  of  300 
years,  which  saw  the  phenomenal  rise  of  horoscopic 
astrology.  There  are,  however,  very  few  great  names 
in  astronomy.  Menelaos,  a  Greek  astronomer  who 
lived  in  Rome  about  98  A.D.,  laid  the  foundation  of 
spherical  trigonometry,  but  it  was  confined  to  a 
transversal  proposition  from  which  Ptolemy  deduced 
solutions  for  only  right  angled  spherical  triangles, 
of  which  either  two  sides  or  an  angle  and  one 
side  are  given.  The  Hindu  astronomers  likewise  used 
only  solutions  of  right  angled  spherical  triangles. 
The  discovery  of  general  relations  in  spherical 
triogetjometry  was  the  work  of  Arabic  astronomers 
•(al-Battani). 

Claudius  PtoletO^  who  worked  at  Alexandria 
between  128-151  A.D.,  was,  as  Sarton  says,  a  man  of 
the  Euclidean  type.  Great  equally  as  an  astronomer, 
mathematician,  geographer,  physicist,  and  chronologist, 
his  main  work  is  the  great  mathematical  and  astro¬ 
nomical  treatise  known  in  <jreek  as  ‘ Syntaxis? ,  and  in 


Arabic  translation  as  the  Almagest.  It  has  been  long 
supposed  that  it  rendered  all  previous  treatises  in 
astronomy  obsolete,  and  remained  a  standard  text, 
which  fertilized  the  brains  of  all  ancient  and  medieval 
astronomers,  Greek,  Jew,  Arab,  and  European,  till 
the  rise  of  the  heliocentric  theory  of  the  universe 
rendered  it  obsolete.  This  opinion  appears  to  have 
been  rather  exaggerated.  Strangely  enough,  the 
Syntaxis  appears  to  have  been  quite  unknown  to  Hindu 
astronomers  of  the  5th  century  A.D. 

Ptolemy’s  chief  contribution  to  astronomy  was  his 
elaborate  theory  of  planetary  motion  and  discovery  of 
a  second  inequality  in  the  motion  of  the  moon,  now 
called  Erection.  He  gave  a  catalogue  of  1028  stars 
with  their  positions,  most  of  which  have  been  shown 
to  have  been  taken  from  Hipparchos  by  adding  3°  to 
the  longitudes  given  by  him.  This  represents  the 
shift  of  the  first  point  of  Aries  since  Hipparchos’s 
time  according  to  Ptolemy’s  calculation.  The  actual 
value  is  4°. 

Ptolemy  wrote  a  treatise  on  astrology  known  as 
the  “ Tetrabiblos ”  which  long  remained  the  Bible  of 
the  astrologers. 

After  Ptolemy,  there  were  no  great  figure  in 
astronomy  except  few  commentators  and  workers  of 
mediocre  ability  like  Theon  of  Alexandria  (about 
370  A.D.),  who  initiated  the  false  theory  of  trepidation 
of  the  equinoxes,  and  Paulus  of  Alexandria  (fl.  378 
A.D.)  who  wrote  an  astrological  introduction.  He  is 
supposed  to  have  been  the  inspirer  of  the  Indian 
Siddhanta  known  as  ‘Pauliki’  Siddhanta’  ( vide  §  5'6 ), 
but  this  hypothesis  started  by  Alberuni  has  never 
been  proved.  With  the  advent  of  Christianty,  and 
after  murder  of  the  learned  Hypatia  (415  A.D.),  the 
‘light’  goes  out  of  Greece. 

The  Greek  contributions  to  astronomy  are  : 

A  geocentric  theory  of  the  universe,  with  the 
planets  in  the  order  given  on  page  203. 

The  treatment  of  planets  as  spherical  bodies 
similar  to  the  earth. 

Geometrization  of  astronomy,  development  of 
the  concepts  of  the  equator,  the  ecliptic  and  of 
spherical  co-ordinates  (right  ascension  and  declination, 
celestial  latitude  and  longitude),  some  elementary  know¬ 
ledge  of  plane  and  spherical  trigometry  to  deal  with 
astronomical  problems. 

Knowledge  of  planetary  orbits,  and  attempts  to 
explain  them  with  the  aid  of  epicyclic  theories. 

4.9  DISCOVERY  OF  THE  PRECESSION  OF 
THE  EQUINOXES 

In  the  previous  sections,  we  have  stated  how  the 
Chaldean  -  and  Greek  astronomers  started  giving 


GALENDARIO  ASTRONOMY 


205 


positions  of  planets,  and  stars,  with  the.  point  of 
intersection  of  the  ecliptic  and  the  equator — the  first 
point  of  Aries — as  the  fiducial  point.  We  shall  now 
relate  how  the  discovery  was  made  that  this  point  is 
not  fixed  in  the  heavens,  but  has  a  slow  motion 
along  the  ecliptic  to  the  west  at  the  rate  of  ca.  50" 
per  year.  The  rate  is  very  small,  but  as  it  is  unidirec¬ 
tional  and  cumulative,  it  is  of  immense  importance 
to  astronomy,  and  incidentally  is  very  damaging  to 
astrology. 

When  the  sun,  in  course  of  its  yearly  journey 
arrives  at  the  first  point  of  Aries,  we  have  the  vernal 
equinox.  The  first  point  of  Aries  is  therefore  also 
called  the  vernal  point. 

The  position  of  the  vernal  point  has  rarely  in  the 
course  of  history,  been  occupied  by  a  prominent  star, 
but  in  India,  as  narrated  in  §  5'4,  its  nearness  to  star- 
groups  as  well  as  the  nearness  'of  other  cardinal 
points  to  star-groups  have  been  noted  from  very  early 
times.  Traditions  of  different  epochs  record  different 
stars  as  being  near  to  the  cardinal  points.  But 
nobody  appeard  to  have  drawn  any  conclusion  from 
these  records  ( vide  for  details  §  5’4  ). 

In  Babylon  also,  different  sets  of  positions  of 
stars  and  planets  record  Aries  15°,  Aries  10°,  and 
Aries  8°  (the  zero  is  of  Ptolemy’s)  as  being  the  vernal 
point.  But  no  Chaldean  astronomer  to  our  knowledge 
appears  to  have  drawn  any  conclusion  from  these  data. 

The  first  astronomer  known  to  have  drawn 
attention  to  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes  was 
Hipparchos.  He  particularly  mentions  that  the 
distance  of  the  bright  star  Spica  (a  Virginis  or  Citra) 
has  shifted  by  2°  from  the  autumnal  equinoctial 
point  since  the  time  of  his  predecessor  Timocharis 
who  observed  at  Alexandria  about  280  B.C.  He 
concluded  that  the  autumnal  point,  and  therefore  also 
the  vernal  point,  was  moving  westward  at  the  rate  of 
51£  seconds  per  year. 

•  It  is  not  known  whether  Hipparchos  considered 
the  motion  as  unidirectional.  It  was  impossible  for 
him  to  say  anything  definite  on  this  point,  as 
obeservations  extending  over  centuries  are  required  to 
enable  one  to  make  a  definite  statement  on  this 
point. 

Though  Hipparchos  made,  as  time  showed,  one  of 
the  greatest  astronomical  discoveries  of  all  times, 
which  is  all-important  for  the  calendar,  as  well  as  for 
astronomy,  its  great  importance  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  realized  by  either  his  contemporaries  or 
followers  for  thousands  of  years. 

Let  us,  therefore,  dwell  a  little  on  the  consequences 
>of  this  discovery.  Later  and  more  accurate  observa¬ 
tions  have  shown  that  the  rate  is  nearly  50"  per  year. 


but  is  subject  to  variations  which  we  may  disregard  at 
this  stage.  The  shift  is  accumulative  and  in  100  years 
would  amount  to  1°  24',  and  in  about  26000  years  the 
first  point  will  go  completely  round  the  ecliptic. 
The  period  depends  upon  certain  factors  and  is  not 
constant. 

The  tropical  year,  or  the  year  which  decides  the 
recurrence  of  seasons,  is  the  time-interval  for  the 
return  of  the  sun  in  its  orbit,  starting  from  the  year’s 
vernal  equinoctial  point  to  the  next  vernal  equinoctial 
point.  If  these  points  were  fixed  on  the  ecliptic,  the 
tropical  year  would  be  the  same  as  the  sidereal  year, 
which  is  the  same  as  the  time  of  revolution  of  the 
earth  in  its  orbit.  But  since  the  vernal  equinoctial  point 
slips  to  the  west,  the  sun  has  to  travel  360°  0'  0"  — 50" 
=  359°  59'  10"  to  arrive  at  the  new  vernal  equi¬ 
noctial  point,  hence  the  duration  of  the  tropical  year  is 
less  than  that  of  the  sidereal  year  by  about  20  minutes. 
In  exact  terms  : 

duration  of  the  sidereil  year  =*365.25636  mean  solar  days 

„  „  „  tropical  „  =365.24220  „ 

at  the  present  time. 

Further  Consequences  of  the  Precession 
of  the  Equinoxes 

We  may  now  consider  some  consequences  of  the 
precession  of  the  equinoxes. 

Hipparchos  appears  first  to  have  marked  out  the 
beginning  of  the  astronomical  first  point  of  Aries.  It 
started  8°  west  of  the  star  a  Arietis.  Ptolemy  had 
found  that  it  had  shifted  by  his  time  by  about  3°, 
and  gave  the  rate  of  precession  as  36"  per  year.  In 
this,  he  was  wrong,  the  true  shift  being  about  4°. 
Ptolemy  in  his  'Uranometry’  gives  the  starting  point 
of  the  sign  of  Aries  as  6°  to  the  west  of  R  Arietis,  and 
the  other  constellations  marked  at  intervals  of  30° 
may  be  marked  out  on  the  zodiac.  The  picture  (Fig.  19) 
gives  the  boundaries  of  the  different  signs  according  to 
Hipparchos.  The  boundaries  of  the  signs  of  Ptolemy 
would  be  4°  to  the  west  of  those  of  Hipparchos. 

By  the  time  of  Ptolemy,  (and  probably  much 
earlier),  a  complex  system  of  astrology  had  developed 
which  connected  men’s  destiny  in  life  with  the 
position  of  planets  in  the  different  signs  at  the  time 
of  his  birth  (horoscopy).  It  was  claimed  that  even 
the  fortunes  of  nations  and  countries  could  be 
calculated  in  advance  from  planetary  positions  in  the 
signs.  Though  a  few  rational  men  like  Seneca  and 
Cicero  were  as  much  sceptical  about  the  claims 
of  astrology  as  the  modern  man,  the  general  mass 
became  converted  to  its  claims,  even  astronomers  not 
excepted.  Even  the  great  Ptolemy  wrote  a  treatise 
'The  Tetmbiblos’  exposing  the  principles  of  Astrology. 


206 


REPORT  OF  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


In  fact,  belief  in  astrology  was  one  of  the  main 
incentives  for  the  observation  of  the  positions  of 
heavenly  bodies  in  ancient  and  medieval  times  which 
were  carried  out  by  medieval  astronomers  with  so 
much  zeal  under  the  willing  patronage  of  influential 
persons. 

The  discovery  of  precession  is  very  disconcerting 
to  astrologers,  for  in  the  astrological  lore,  the  signs 
are  identified  with  certain  fixed  star-clusters  ;  whereas 
precession  tends  to  take  them  entirely  out  of  these 
star-clusters.  Thus  since  Hipparchos’s  time,  the  shift 
has  been  nearly  30  degrees,  and  what  was  the  sign  of 
Pisces  in  Hipparchos’s  time  has  now  become  the  sign 
of  Aries,  and  the  astronomical  sign  of  Aries  has  now 
nothing  to  do  with  the  Aries  constellation. 

This  consequence  must  have  been  foreseen  by  the 
followers  of  Ptolemy,  and  they  probably  started,  more 
on  psychological  than  on  scientific  grounds,  to  find 
out  theories  to  mitigate  the  devastating  influence  of 
precession  on  astrology.  Astronomers  immediately 
following  Ptolemy  barely  mentioned  precession.  It 
was  first  referred  to  by  Theon  of  Alexandria  {ca.  370 
A.D.)  who  invented  the  theory  of  Trepidation,  i.e.>  he 
said  that  the  precessional  motion  was  not  unidirec¬ 
tional,  but  oscillatory.  He  gave  the  amplitude  of 
oscillation  as  8°.  Probably  this  figure  was  suggested 
by  the  fact  that  at  Theon’s  time  the  first  point  of 
Aries  had  shifted  by  a  little  less  than  8°  from 
Hipparchos’s  position,  and  Theon  thought  that  it 
would  go  back  and  save  astrology. 

Proclos  the  successor  (410-485  A.D.),  head  of  the 
Platonic  Academy  at  Athens,  a  very  learned  man  and 
one  of  the  founders  of  Neoplatonism,  denied  the 
existence  of  precession  1 

After  the  sixth  century  A.D„  the  dark  age  set  in 
Europe  and  the  mantle  of  scientific  investigation  fell 
on  the  Hindus  and  the  Arabs.  Let  us  see  how  the 
Arab  astronomers  regarded  the  precession. 

Thabit  ibn  Qurra  (826-901  A.D.),  who  flourished 
at  Baghdad  under  the  early  Abbasides,  translated 


Ptolemy’s  Almagest  into  Arabic  j  he  noted  precession, 
but  upheld  the  theory  of  trepidation.  But  the  other 
great  Arabic  astronomers  like  al-Farghanl  (861- 
Baghdad),  al-Battanl  (858-Syria),  Abd  al-RahamSn 
al-Stlfl  (903-986-Teheran)  and  Ibn  Yunus  (d.  1009 — 
Cairo),  all  noted  precession  and  rejected  the  theory 
of  trepidation.  In  fact  al-BattSnl  gave  the  rate  of 
precession  as  54"  per  year,  which  is  far  more  correct 
than  the  rate  given  by  Ptolemy,  viz.,  36"  per  year. 

But  unfortunately,  Europe  recovering  from  the 
slumbers  of  dark  ages  were  more  influenced  by  the 
Spanish-Muslim  astronomers  al-Zarquali  (1029-1087  of 
Cordova),  and  al-Bitruji  ( ca .  1150,  living  at  Seville), 
who  upheld  the  theory  of  trepidation.  As  their 
influence  was  considerable,  they  were  largely 
responsible  for  its  diffusion  among  the  Muslim,  Jewish 
and  Christian  astronomers,  so  much  so  that  Johann 
Werner  (1522)  and  Copernicus  himself  (1543)  were  still 
accepting  it  ;  Tycho  Brahe  and  Kepler  had  doubts 
concerning  the  continuity  and  regularity  of  the 
precession,  but  they  finally  rejected  the  trepidation. 
The  theory  of  trepidation  was  completely  given  up  in 
Europe  after  1687,  when  Newton  gave  a  physical 
explanation  of  it  from  dynamics  and  the  law  of 
gravitation.  This  is  given  in  appendix  (4-A),  for  the 
benefit  of  Indian  astrologers  and  almanac-makers  who 
still  believe  in  the  theory  of  trepidation  and  oppose 
reform  of  the  wrong  calendar  they  are  using  for 
centuries. 

Sarton  from  whose  writings  much  of  this  account 
has  been  compiled,  writes*  : 

“The  persistence  of  the  false  theory  of  trepidation  is 
difficult  to  understand.  At  the  very  beginning  of  our  era, 
the  time  span  of  the  observations  was  still  too  small  to 
measure  the  precession  with  precision  and  without 
ambiguity,  but  as  the  centuries  passed  there  could  not 
remain  any  ambiguity.  Between  the  stellar  observations 
registered  in  the  Almagest  and  those  that  could  be  made  by 
Copernicus,  almost  fifteen  centuries  had  elapsed,  and  the 
difference  of  longitudes  would  amount  to  21°” 


*  Sarton,  A  History  of  Science,  p.  446. 


APPENDIX  4-A 


Newton’s  Explanation  of  the  Precession 
of  the  Equinoxes 


In  view  of  the  prevailing  confusion  in  the  minds  of 
Indian  almanac  makers  regarding  precession  of  the  equinoxes, 
a  short  sketch  of  the  physical  explanation  of  the  phenomenon 
originally  given  first  by  Newton  is  given  here  in  the 
hope  that  those  amongst  Indian  calendar  makers  who 
believe  in  science,  may  be  persuaded  to  give  up  their  belief 
in  the  theory  of  trepidation  and  be  converted  to  the 
s&yana  reckoning  advocated  in  these  pages.  This 
explanation  will  be  found  in  any  standard  book  on  Dynamics 
or  Dynamical  Astronomy,  e.g.,  in  Webster’s  Dynamics. 

We  have  now  to  regard  the  earth  as  a  material  sphere, 
spinning  rapidly  round  its  axes,  which  is  inclined  at  an 
angle  of  ?  —  *>  to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  where  i»  =  obliquity 
of  the  ecliptic  to  the  equator. 

The  earth  is  kept  in  its  orbit  by  the  gravitational  pull  of 
the  sun,  which  is  situated  at  one  of  the  foci  of  the  earth’s  orbit 
which  is  an  ellipse.  Dynamics  shows  that  the  plane  of  the 
ecliptic  is  almost  invariant,  i.e.,  does  not  change  with  time, 
exoept  a  very  small  oscillation  due  to  attraction  of  other 
planets  on  the  earth.  What  is  then  precession  due  to  ? 

This  is  explained  by  means  of  the  following  figure. 


In  the  above  figure  (No.  21),  C  is  the  pole  of  the  ecliptic 
EL'L.  Let  T  x  midway  between  E  and  L  be  the  first 
.  point  of  Aries  for  year'  b.  7? hen  the  celestial  pole  is  Plt 
and  the  celestial  equator  is  Ex  T  j  Qx.  Due  to  precession  of 
the  equinoxes,  the  first  point  of  Aries  is  slowly  moving  in 
the  backward  direction  L  Tx  E  along  the  ecliptio.  If  T  x 
shifts  to  T,  in  year  2,  the  celestial  pole  shifts  to  P» 
j^long  the,  small  circle  PxPt  Pa..,whereCP=obliquity  of 


the  ecliptic.  The  celestial  equator  assumes  a  new  position 
E 2  T  2  Q»  in  year  2. 

The  celestial  pole  P  therefore  goes  round  the  pole  of  the 
ecliptic  C,  and  it  makes  a  complete  cycle  in  a  period  of  about 
26000  years  as  shown  in  fig.  22. 

At  present  (1950  A.  D.),  the  celestial  pole  is  58'  from 
Polaris  (a  Ursa  Minoris)  which  is  a  star  of  the  second 
magnitude.  CP,  i.e.,  the  line  joining  the  pole  of  the  ecliptic 
G  to  the  celestial  pole  P  continues  to  approach  the  Polaris 
up  to  2105  A.  D.,  when  the  pole  would  be  only  30'  away  from 
the  star  and  will  then  begin  to  recede  from  it. 


Fig.  22— Showing  the  precessions!  path  of  the  celestial 
pole  among  the  stars. 

(Taken  from  Astronomy  by  Russell  &  others) 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  celestial  pole  has  not  been 
marked  with  a  prominent  star  for  most  part  of  this  period 
of  26000  years.  About  2700  B.  C.,  the  second  magnitude 
star  a  Draconis  was  the  pole-star,  as  was-  probably  known 
to  the  ancient  Egyptians,  the  Chinese  and  the  IJg-Vedic 
Hindus.  Conscious  human  history  hardly  goes  beyond  this 
period.  The  prominent  stars  which  will  become  pole  stars 
in  future  are  : 

7  Cephei . 4500  A.D. 

a  Cephei.;. . 7500  A.D. 

3  Cygni  . 11200  A.D. 

a  Lyrm (Vega)  ...13600  A.D. 

The  last  is  a  first  magnitude  star,  the  brightest  ih  the 
northern  heavens  and  oan  be  easily  nicked  up  with  the 
naked  eye. 


208 


REPOET  OF  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


The  phenomenon  of  precession  of  the  equinoxes  tells  us 
that  in  addition  to  rotation,  the  earth  has  another  motion, 
viz.,  a  slow  conical  motion  of  its  axis  round  the  pole  of 
the  ecliptic  which  causes  the  equinoxes  to  move  bakward. 
The  phenomenon  can  be  visualized  by  reference  to  the 
motion  of  tops  played  by  boys  (Fig.  23). 

It  is  a  matter  of  common  experience  with  those  who 
have  played  with  tops  that  when  the  top  is  thrown  spinning  - 
on  the  earth,  the  axis  round  which  the  top  is  spinning  very 
often  is  not  vertical,  but  is  oblique  ;  and  it  is  also  having  a 
slow  motion  in  a  circle  round  the  vertical  as  shown 
in  fig.  23.  This  last  motion  is  p recessional  motion.  The 
top  may  be  likened  to  the  earth,  and  the  vertical  direction 
of  gravity,  corresponds  to  the  pole  of  the  ecliptic.  The 


Fig.  23 — Motion  of  a  top. 

The  spinning  top,  which  is  likened  to  the  earth,  causes 
processional  motion  of  its  axis. 


top  would  have  fallen  but  for  its  spin.  When  it  slows  down, 
the  top  falls  down  ;  the  processional  motion  of  the  top  is 
due  to  the  pull  exerted  by  the  gravity. 

Now  turning  to  the  earth,  we  see  that  as^a  first 
approximation, we  may  take  it  as  a  point  of  mass  concentrated 
at  the  centre,  and  then  deduce  its  orbit  as  is  done  in 
classical  planetary  theory.  This  would  have  been  all  right, 
if  the  earth  were  a  homogeneous  sphere.  But  the  earth  is  not 
a  sphere,  but  a  spheroid,  having  its  polar  axis  shorter  than 
the  equatorial  axis  by  43  kms.  (  =  27  miles).  There  is  an 
equatorial  bulge  of  matter.  The  pull  due  to  the  sun,  is  now 
equivalent  to  a  force  in  the  ecliptic  passing  through  the  .cesfcre 
of  the  earth  defining  the  orbital  motion,  plus  a  couple,  whiph 
tends  to  turn  the  equator  of  the  earth  into  the  plane  of  tie 
ecliptic.  1$  is  this  couple  which  produces  precessional  motion. 

For  details  of  calculation  the  reader  may  refer  to  a  book 
on  Rigid  Dynamics,  say  A Webster,  Dynamics,  pp.  298-302. 

We  mention  only  the  results  here  : 


If  \p  be  the  angle  of  precession,  i.e.,  the  angle  P±CPt  in 
fig.  21.  we  have  due  to  the  sun’s  attraction 


3  ym  y  C  —  A 
2 Dr8 


COS  <D 


(i-ffi-2) 
2 n 


where  : 

y  =  gravitational  constant  =  6.67  X 10- *  c.  g.  s.  units  ; 

C  =  moment  of  inertia  of  the  earth  round  the  polar  axis  ; 

A  =  moment  of  inertia  of  the  earth  round  an  equatorial  axis  *, 
o>  =  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  =  23°  26  45"  ; 
wi=mass  of  the  sun=  1.99  x10s 8  gms  ; 
r  =  distance  of  the  earth  from  the  sun  =1.497  XlOx®  cms  ; 


-—=  tide- raising  term  ; 
r  8 

1  =  longitude  of  the  sun  ; 

n= angular  velocity  of  the  earth  ; 

ft  =  angular  rotational  speed  of  the  earth  in  radians. 

If  the  earth  were  a  homogeneous  sphere,  C  would  be=A, 
and  i/'  =  0.  But  taking  the  polar  radius  c~a  (1—  «),  where 
e  =  ellipticity  of  the  earth,  it  can  be  shown  that  for  the  earth, 
in  which  concentric  layers  are  taken  to  be  homogeneous 


n _ A 

But  actually  —  is  the  mechanical  ellipticity  of  the  earth. 


the  value  of  which  has  been  found  by  observation  as 


304 


Substituting  the  values  as  given  above  in  the  expression 

34,  =  3-ym  Cj-A  M  2J) 

dt  2  ftr®  C 

we  get  the  progressive  part  of  the  solar  precession 
=  2’46X10-18. 


This  is  in  radians  per  second  of  time.  To  convert  it  to 
seconds  of  arc  per  year,  we  have  to  multiply  the  expression 
by  2.063  X  10s  X  3.156 X 107. 

2.063  X 10®  being  the  number  of  seconds  of  angle  in 
a  radian,  and  3.156  X10T  the  number  of  seconds  of 
time  in  the  year. 

We  have  therefore  the  rate  of  solar  precession 
=  16."0  por  year. 

We  have  now  to  calculate  the  action  of  the  moon  which, 
in  spite  of  its  much  smaller  mass,  exerts  a  far  larger 
perturbing  force  as  the  lunar  distance  is  much  smaller.  In 

fact  the  tide  raising  force  ^  for  the  moon  is  more  than 

double  that  of  the  sun.  This  makes  the  rate  of  lunar 
precession  =  34". 4  per  year. 

But  there  is  another  complication.  The  moon’s  orbit  is 
not  coincident  with  he  sun’s  path  (ecliptic)  but  is  inclined 
at  an  average  angle  of  5°  9',  the  extreme  values  being  5°  19' 
and  4°  59'.  Further  the  points  of  intersection  of  the  moon’s 
orbit  with  the  ecliptic  travel  round  the  ecliptic  in  a  period  of 
18.6  years.  The  pole  of  the  moon’s  orbit  M  therefore  moves 
round  the  polo  of  the  ecliptic  C  as  shown  in  fig.  24  in  a 
period  of  18.6  years.  The  lunar  precessional  angle  has 
therefore  to  be  defined  from  the  instantaneous  position  of  M. 

Combination  of  the  two  precessional  motions. 

The  two  precessions  can  be  oombined  as  in  fig.  24.  Here 
C,  M  are  the  poles  of  the  ecliptic  and  of  the  moon’s  orbit. 
f>  is  the  celest^l  pole.  The  solar  precession  can  be 


CALENDARIC  ASTRONOMY 


209 


represented  by  the  vector  rpi  along  the  line  PS  perpendicular 
to  CP,  hut  the  lunar  precession  is  represented  by  the  vector 
PB,  which  goes  up  and  down  as  M  goes  round  C  in  a 


complete  cycle  of  18.6  years  (period  of  moon's  node). 
Therefore  the  motion  is  equivalent  to 

'I'm.  —  'l'.+'l'™  Cos  MPC. .  .parallel  to  PS. 

" yp m  Sin  MPC... perpendicular  to  PS. 

This  causes  certain  irregularities  in  the  processional 
motion  and  also  in  the  annual  variation  of  the  obliquity  of 


the  ecliptic,  which  would  otherwise  have  been  uniform. 
These  periodic  (period  =  18'6  years)  variations  are  known 

as  Nutation. 

Annual  Rate  of  Precessional  Motion 

The  solar  and  lunar  precessions  amount  to  50.  "37  per 
tropical  year,  with  a  very  small  centurial  variation.  After 
making  necessary  corrections  for  the  slight  motion  of  the 
plane  of  the  ecliptic  due  to  attraction  of  planetB,  the  annual 
rate  of  general  precession  in  longitude  is  obtained  as 
follows  : — 

Rate  of  precession  =  50."2564+0. "0222  T  per  trop.  year, 

where  T=  Tropical  centuries  after  1900  A.D. 

The  nutation  in  longitude  may  amount  to  ±17. "2 
according  to  different  positions  of  the  lunar  node,  but  its 
effect  on  the  annual  rate  of  precession  does  not  exceed  ±5.  ”8, 
so  that  the  actual  precession  rate  per  year  may  vary 
between  44."5  to  56.  ”0. 

The  average  rate  of  annual  precession  is  not  constant, 
it  is  very  slowly  increasing.  The  annual  rate  for  certain 
epochs  along  with  the  period  taken  by  the  equinoxes  to  move 
through  1°,  are  however  stated  below  : — 

Bate  of  precession  No.  of  years  per  degree 


2000  B.O. 

49.  "391 

72.89 

0 

49.835 

72.-24 

1900  A.D. 

50.256 

71.63 

2000  A.D. 

50.279 

71.60 

Stars  of  the  Lunar  Mansions — contd. 


[  211  ] 


C.  R.— 35 


according  to  the  older  system  which  includes  Abhijit. 


CHAPTER  V 
Indian  Calendar 


5.1  THE  PERIODS  IN  INDIAN  HISTORY 

The  time-periods  in  Indian  history  necessary  for 
our  purpose  are  shown  in  the  Chronological  Table. 

The  earliest  civilization  so  far  discovered  in  India 
is  the  HarappS-Mohenjo-Daro  civilization  (sometimes 
also  called  the  Indus- Valley  civilization)  named  after 
the  two  ancient  buried  cities  of  HarappS  in  the 
Punjab  and  Mohenjo-Daro  in  Sind.  They  were  first 
brought  to  light  by  the  late  R.D.  Baner  jee,  Superinten¬ 
dent  of  the  Western  Circle  of  Archaeology  of  India  in 
1924.  It  has  now  been  ascertained  that  this 
civilization  extended  right  upto  Rupar  on  the  Sutlej 
in  the  east  and  to  the  Narmada  valley  in  the  south. 
This  civilization  was  certainly  contemporaneous  with 
the  Mesopotamian  civilizations  of  about  2500  B.C., 
nearly  500  years  before  the  city  of  Babylon  had  risen 
to  supremacy  amongst  the  cities  of  Sumer  and  Akkad  ; 
and  with  the  first  dynastic  civilization  of  Egypt.  How 
far  back  it  projected  into  the  time-scale  is  not  yet 
known,  but  certainly  many  thousand  years  back. 

From  the  material  records  of  the  Indus-valley 
civilization,  it  is  obvious  that  the  Harappa-Mohenjo- 
Daro  people  had  attained  to  as  high  a  standard  of 
civilization,  if  not  higher,  as  the  contemporary  people 
of  Iraq  and  Egypt.  But  the  script  has  not  yet  been  deci¬ 
phered  ;  it  is  therefore  difficult  to  give  a  chronological 
history,  but  it  is  not  so  difficult  to  make  a  study  of  the 
attainments  of  this  civilization  in  arts  and  sciences  ; 
they  could  build  well  planned  cities,  used  a  drainage 
system  superior  to  that  of  contemporary  Egypt  or  Iraq, 
-used  copper  and  bronze,  and  had  evidently  evtoved  a 
.highly  complex  social  organization. 

All  civilized  communities  have  been  found  to  have 
evolved  accurate  systems  of  weights  and  measures  and 
-some  kind  of  calendar  for  the  regulation  of  social 
life.  We  have  some  evidences  of  the  use  of  standard 
weights  and  measures  in  the  Indus  valley. 

But  had  they  evolved  a  calendar  ?  The  presump¬ 
tion  is  that  they  must  have,  but  nothing  has  yet  been 
discoverd  amongst  the  artefacts  left  by  these  people  so 
far  recovered  by  the  Archaeological  Survey  which 
throws  light  oo,  the  .  calendar,  or  the  system  of  time- 
measurement  they  uS*!4 

It  is  held  on  quite  sound  grounds  that  the  Harappa- 
Mohenjodaro  people  were  succeeded  in  the  Punjab 
and  -in  the  valley  of  the  now  lost  Sarasvatl  river  by 
the  Aryan  people  who  were  either  autochthonous  or 
more  probably  came  through  Afghanistan  in  single  or 


successive  streams  between  2500  B.C.  and  1500  B.C. 
Others  would  go  further  back  in  time-scale  from 
certain  astronomical  evidences. 

Few,  almost  none  of  the  material  records  or 
artefacts  of  the  early  Aryans  except  some  potteries 
tentatively  ascribed  to  them,  have  so  far  been 
discovered.  Almost  the  whole  of  our  knowledge  about 
them  are  derived  from  the  hymns  of  the  Rg-Vedas 
which  were  composed  by  priestly  families  amongst 
them  in  an  archaic  form  of  Sanskrit  (Vedic  Sanskrit), 
in  honour  of  the  gods  they  worshipped  ;  in  these 
hymns  are  found  occasional  references  to  the  sun,  the 
moon,  certain  stars,  and  to  months  and  seasons.  Some 
think  that  there  are  also  references  to  planets,  i.e.,  the 
Vedic  Aryans  could  distinguish  between  fixed  stars 
and  planets,  but  this  is  doubtful.  From  certain 
references  which  we  discuss  in  §  5.2,  we  may  conclude 
that  they  used  an  empirical  luni-solar  calendar. 
Probably  this  was  used  till  1300  B.C.  We  do  not 
come  across  sufficient  material  records  until  we 
come  to  the  time  of  Asoka  about  270  B.C. 

What  was  the  calendar  during  the  period 
1300  B.C. —  250  B.C.  ?  The  Yajur-Veda,  the  Brahmanas , 
the  Upanisads  and  other  post  Rg-Vedic  literature,  and 
the  early  Buddhistic  literature  contain  occasional 
astronomical  references,  from  which  the  nature  of 
the  calender  used  for  ceremonical  and  other  purposes 
can  be  inferred.  The  interpretation  of  the  texts  is 
neither  easy,  nor  unambiguous.  The  latter  part  of 
this  period  has  been  called  by  S.  B.  Dlk§it,  our  pioneer 
in  calendar  research,  as  the  Vedanga  Jyotisa  period. 
This  is  discussed  in  §  5.4. 

The  Vedanga  Jyotija  calendar  appears  to  have 
been  almost  completely  free  from  foreign  influence, 
though  this  point  of  view  has  been  contested.  The 
Persian  conqueror  Darius  conquered  Afghanistan,  and 
Gandhar,  about  518  B.C.  ;  this  region  appears  to  have 
continued  under  the  Achemenids  for  nearly  two 
centuries.  The  Achemenids  used  a  solar  calendar 
probably  adopted  from  Egypt  in  contrast  to  the 
luni-solar  calendar  of  India,  but  this  does  not  appear  to 
have  disturbed  the  indigenous  luni-solar  calendarical 
system. 

The  Vedanga  Jyoti§a  period,  which  as  we  shall 
show,  was  continued  by  Indian  dynasts  up  to  the  time 
of  the  Satavahanas  (200  A.D.),  was  succeeded  by  the 
Siddhania  Jyoti$a  period,  but  the  first  record  of  this 
period  is  available  only  about  400  A.D.  The  transi- 


INDIAN  CALENDAR 


213 


tional  period  from  100  A.D.  to  400  A.D.  is  one  of  the 
darkest  periods  in  Indian  chronology.  Due  to 
successive  invasions  by  Macedonian  and  Bactrian 
Greeks  (  Yavanas  ),  Parthians  (  Pallavas  ),  Sakas  and 
Ku§3i}as,  the  period  from  300  B.C.  to  200  A.D.  is  one 
of  large  foreign  contacts  which  profoundly  modified 
Indian  life  in  arts,  sciences,  sculpture  and  state-craft. 
But  the  history  of  this  period  was  entirely  forgotten 
and  is  being  recovered  bit  by  bit  from  inscriptions, 
foreign  references,  and  from  artefacts  recovered  in 
excavations  of  the  sites  occupied  by  invaders  of  this 
period.  Let  us  give  a  bird’s  eye  view  of  the  history  of 
this  period,  imperfect  as  it  is,  so  that  the  reader  may 
follow  without  strain  our  account  of  the  transition  of 
the  Vedaiiga  Jyoli$a  calendar  to  Siddhantic  calendar. 

In  323  B.C.,  Alexander  of  Macedon  raided  the 
Punjab,  but  this  incident  by  itself  had  no  such 
profound  influence  on  Indian  life  as  is  generally  made 
out.  Its  influence  was  rather  indirect.  In  India,  it 
gave  rise  to  a  great  national  movement  of  unification 
under  Candragupta  and  Canakya.  In  the  former 
empire  of  Darius,  it  gave  rise  to  a  number  of  Greek 
states  which  became  the  focus  of  radiation  of  Greek 
culture  throughout  the  Last.  The  most  important 
were  Egypt  under  the  rule  of  the  Ptolemies,  with 
capital  at  Alexandria,  and  the  Near  East  under  the 
Seleucids  with  capital  at  Babylon,  which  was 
succeeded  a  few  years  later  by  Seleucia  a  few  miles 
distant  from  later  Baghdad.  In  306  B.C.,  Candragupta 
ind  Seleucus  faced  each  other,  but  the  Greek  army 
was  rolled  back  to  the  borders  of  modern  Iran,  and 
almost  the  whole  of  modern  Afghanistan  except 
Bactria  (modern  Balkh)  constituting  the  four  satrapies 
of  the  old  Persian  empire  were  ceded  to  India.  f  They 
continued  to  be  politically  and  culturally  parts  of 
India. till  the  tenth  century  A-D. 

The  Mauryas  kept  out  the  Greeks  till  186  B.C., 
when  on  the  break-up  of  their  empire,  the  Greek 
settlers  in  Bactria  who  had  revolted  from  their 
overlords,  the  Seleucids,  began  to  make  inroads  into 
India.  There  were  two  rival  Greek  houses,  the 
earlier,  the  Euthydemids  who  under  Demetrius  and 
Menander  (175  B.C.)  took  possession  of  the  Punjab 
and  Sind  between  180  B.C.  to  150  B.C.  and  threatened 
even  Pataliputra  but  were  rolled  back  beyond  the 
Jamuna  by  the  Surigas  ;  the  line  of  Eukratidas  who 
ousted  Demetrius  and  his  line  from  Bactria  and 
Afghanistan  proper  about  160  B.C.,  reigned  in 
Afghanistan  up  to  50  3.C.  But  there  rose  about 
226  B.C.,  a  great  barrier  between-  the  Eastern  Greeks 
(Bactrians  and  Indian  Greeks)  and  the  Western 
Greeks' in  the  shape  of  the  Parthian  empire  (248  B.C.), 
which  became  very  powerful  under  Mithradates  I 


(175 — 150  B.C.),  who  controlled  the  whole  of  Iran  and 
wrested  Bactria  from  the  line  of  Eukratidas  in  138  B.C. 

But  inspite  of  these  political  happenings,  Greek 
remained  the1  language  of  culture  throughout  the 
whole  Near  East,  from  Asia  Minor  to  North-Western 
India.  The  Parthians  since  128  B.C.  called  themselves 
‘Philhellens’  or  lover  of  Greek  culture  and  used  Greek 
on  their  coins,  and  the  Graeco-Chaldeaii  method  of 
date-recording  on  their  inscriptions.  But  about  140 
B.C.,  a  new  power  was  on  the  move,  vix.,  the  Sakasr 
from  Central  Asia  ;  they  began  to  emerge  as  a  ruling 
race  from  about  138  B.C.  In  129  B.C.  they  attacked 
Bactria,  and  by  123  B.C.  they  wrested  it  completely 
out  of  the  Parthian  empire,  after  defeating  and  killing 
on  the  battlefield  two  successive  Parthian  emperors, 
vix.,  Phraates  II  (128  B.C.)  and  Artabanus  I  (123B.C.). 

/ 

The  early  Sakas  appear  from  their  coins  to  have 
been  under  the  spell  of  Greek  civilization,  and 
used  Greek  as  a  language  of  culture  and  put  motifs 
taken  from  Greek  mythology  on  their  coins.  Pressed 
by  the  next  Parthian  emperor,  Mithradates  II 
(123 — 90  B.C.),  they  poured  by  80  B.C.,.  into  the 
whole  of  what  is  modern  Afghanistan,  except  the 
Kabul  valley,  which  the  Greeks  held  for  sometime. 
Their  new  territory  became  known  as  ‘Sakasthan’ 
comprising  modern  Afghanistan  and  parts  of  N.W. 
India.  From  Afghanistan,  they  poured  in  successive 
streams  to  Malwa,  Guzrat,  Taxila  about  70  B.C.,  and 
to  Mathura,  somewhat  later  and  had  put  an  end  to 
the  numerous  Greek  principalities  in  the  Punjab. 
Their  further  progress  was  barred  by  the  Sstavahanas 
in  the  South,  and  numerous  small  kingdoms  which 
arose  in  the  Gangetic  valley  on  the  break-up  of  the 
Suhga  and  Kaijva  empires  (45  A.D.).  After  50  A.D., 
the  Sakas  of  the  North  were  supplanted  by  the  Ku?ai)as 
belonging  to  a  kindred  race,  and  speaking  the  Saka 
language  ;  they  ruled  Northern  India  from  their 
capitals  at  Peshawar  and  Mathura  up  to  at  least  170 
A.D.  Contemporaneously  with  them,  were  the  Saka 
Satrap  houses  of  Ujjain,  who  started  ruling  from 
about  first  century  of  the  Christian  era. 

A  chart  of  these  historical  incidents  is  attached 
for  the  sake  of  elucidation  as  they  are  necessary 
for  the  comprehension  of  the  extent  and  amount  of 
Greek  culture,  which  was  propagated  into  India,  not 
so  much  through  the  Greek s  directly,  but  as  it  appears 
now,  indirectly  through  the  early  Sakas  and  their 
successors,  the  KusSijas. 

It  now  appears  very  probable  that  it  was  daring 
the  regime  of  the  Saka  and  J&o*?aoa  rulers  (100  B.C.- 
200  A.D.)  that  a  knowledge  of  the  Graeco-Chaldean 
astronomy,  which  had  developed  in  the  Grecian  world 
after  300  B.C.,  and  ended  with  the  astronomer 


214 


REPORT  OF  THE  CALENDAR  EEFOEM  COMMITTEE 


Ptolemy  (150  A.D.),  and  in  the  Near  East  under  the 
Scleucids  (300  B.C.  to  100  A.D.),  penetrated  into 
India,  being  brought  by  astronomers  belonging  to  the 
Saka  countries,  who  later  were  absorbed  into  Indian 
society  as  Sakadvipi  or  Scythian  Brahmins.  The 
borrowings  appear  to  be  more  from  Seleucid  Babylon 
than  from  the  west.  The  knowledge  of  Graeco- 
Chaldean  astronomy  was  the  basis  on  which  the 
calendar  prescribed  by  the  Surya  Siddhanta  and  other 
Siddhantas  were  built  up.  It  completely  replaced  the 
former  Veda-hga  Jyotiqa  calendar  and  by  about  400  A.D, 
when  the  Vedaiiga  Jyoliga  calendar  had  completely 
disappeared  from  all  parts  of  India. 

From  400  A.D.  to  1200  A.D.,  almost  the  whole  of 
India  used  calendars  based  on  Siddhanta  Jyoti$a  for 
date-recording.  All  Indian  astronomers  used  the 
Saka  era  for  purposes  of  accurate  calculations,  but  its 
use  for  date-recording  by  kings  and  writers  was 
generally  confined  to  parts  of  the  South.  In  general, 
the  Indian  dynasties  used  eras  of  their  own,  or  regnal 
years,  though  the  annual  calendar  was  compiled 
according  to  rules  laid  down  either  in  the  Surya 
Siddhanta ,  the  Arya  Siddhanta  or  the  Brahma 
Siddhanta.  These  did  notrmuch  differ  in  essentials. 

When  India  since  1200  A.D.  fell  under  Islamic 
domination,  the  rulers  introduced  the  lunar  Hejira 
calendar  for  civil  and  administrative  purposes  as  well. 
Indian  calendars  were  retained  only  in  isolated 
localities  where  Hindus  happened  to  maintain  their 
ndependence,  or  used  only  for  religious  purposes. 
The  emperor  Akber  in  1584  tried  to  suppress  the 
Hejira  calendar  for  administrative  purposes  by  the 
Tarikh-llahi ,  a  modified  version  of  the  solar  calendar 
of.  Iran,  but  this  fell  in  disuse  from  about  1630. ,  Since 
the  advent  of  British  rule  in  1757,  the  Gregorian 
calendar  has  been  used  for  civil  and  administrative 
purposes,  which  is  still  being  continued. 

We  have  attempted  to  give  below  short  accounts 
of  calendars  in  use  in  different  epochs  of  history. 


5.2  CALENDAR  IN  THE  RIG-VEDIC  AGE 
(  —1200  B.C.  ) 

The  Vedic  Literature  :  The  knowledge  of  the  calen¬ 
dar  in  this  age  can  be  obtained  only  from  the  Vedic 
literatute  which  consists  however  of  different  strata, 
greatly  differing  i*  a fie.  According  to  the  great 
orientalist  Max  Mliller  four  periods  each  presupposing 
the  preceding  can  be  distinguished.  They  are  : — 

(a)  The  Chandas  and  Mantras  composing  the 
Safnhitas  or  collections  of  hymns,  prayers,  incantations, 
benedictions,  sacrificial  formulas,  and  litanies 


comprising  the  four  Vedas  :  The  Rk,  S^r&a,  Yajus, 
and  Atharva. 

(b)  The  Br&hmanas  which  are  prose  texts  contai¬ 
ning  theological  matter,  particularly  observations  on 
sacrifices  and  their  mystical  significances  ;  attached 
to  the  Brahmaym ,  but  reckoned  also  as  independent 
works  are  the  Araifyakas  or  Upanisads  containing 
meditations  of  forest  hermits  and  ascetics  on  God,  the 
wdrld,  aiid  mankind.  These  treatises  are  attached  to 
each  of  the  individual  Vedas. 

(c)  The  Sutras  or  Aphorisms,  qr  Vedahgas. 

'Vedarigas',  lit.  limbs  of  Vedas,  are  post-Vedic 
Sutra  or  aphorism  literature  which  grew  as  results  of 
attempts  to  understand  the  Vedas  in  their  various 
aspects,  and  sometimes  to  develop  the  ideas  contained 
in  the  V edas.  According  to  the  orthodox  view,  there 
are  six  VedUiigas  as  follows  : 

(1)  Sik$a  :  or  phonetics  ;  texts  explaining  how 
the  Vedic  literature  proper  is  to  be  pronounced,  and 
memorized. 

(2)  Kalpa  :  or  ritualistic  literature,  of  which 
four  types  are  known  :  Srauta  Sutras  dealing  with 
sacrifices  ;  Ophya  Sutras  dealing  with  domestic  duties 
of  a  householder  ;  Dharma  Sutras  dealing  with 
religious  and  social  laws  ;  Sulva  Sutras  dealing  with 
the  construction  of  sacrificial  altars. 

(3)  Vyakararia  :  or  Grammar,  e.  g.,  Papini’s  famous 
A?tadhyayi,  which  once  for  all  fixed  up  the  Sanskrit 
language.  The  Astadhyayi  is  however  the  culmination 
of  attempts  by  large  number  of  older  authors,  whose 
works  were  rendered  obsolete  by  Papini’  masterpiece. 

(4)  Nirukta  or  Etymology:  explanation  of  the  Vedic 
words  ascribed  to  one  Yaska,  who  lived  before  Paiyini. 

(5)  Chandas— Metrics  ascribed  to  Pingala. 

(6)  Jyoti§a— Astronomy:  the  Rg-Jyoti§a  is  ascribed 
to  one  Lagadha,  of  whom  nothing  is  known. 

Only  the  sixth  Vedanga  or  Jyotiga  interests  us, 
though  there  are  occasional  references  to  the  calendar 
in  all  Sotra  literatures. 


Age  of  the  Vedic  Literature  * 

The  above  gives  the  ‘Philologists’  stratification  of 
the  age  of  the  Vedic  literature.  About  the  actual 
age  of  each  strata,  there  is  great  divergence  of  opinion, 
though  it  is  admitted  that  the  oldest  in  point  of  age 
are  the  Safnhitcis ,  then  come  the  Brahmarias  and 


*  Much  of  the  Bubstance- matter  of  this  section  is  taken  from 
Wintemitz’s  A  History  of  Indian  Literature  Vol.  1,  published  by  the 
University  of  Calcutta. Chap.  I,  on  Vedic  Literature. 


INDIAN  CALENDAR 


215 


Upanisads,  next  the  Sutras  or  the  Veddfigas.  Of 
the  four  Vedas,  the  Rg-Vedas  are  by  common  consent 
taken  to  be  the  earliest  in  age  and  as  Winternitz 
remarks,  though  all  subsequent  Indian  literature  refers 
to  the  Rg-Vedas,  they  presuppose  nothing  extant. 

Max  Mliller  made  a  rough  assignment  of  age  to 
the  different  strata  as  follows  on  the  assumption  that 
the  Brahmaijic  and  Upani?adic  literature  predated 
the  rise  of  Buddhism,  and  that  the  Sutra  literature 
which  may  be  synchronous  with  the  Buddhistic 
literature  may  be  dated  600  B.C.  to  200  B.C.  Working 
backwards  he  assigned  the  Brahmaijic  literature  to 
600  B.C.  to  800  B.C.,  the  interval  800  B.C.  to  1000  B.C. 
as  the  period  in  which  the  collections  of  hymns  were 
arranged,  and  1000  B,C.  to  1200  B.C,  as  the  period  of 
the  beginning  of  Vedic  poetry.  He  always  regarded 
these  periods  as  terminus  ad  quem ,  and  in  his  Gifford 
Lectures  on  Physical  Religion  in  1889,  he  expressly 
states  "that  wo  cannot  hope  to  fix  a  terminus  a  quo. 
Whether  the  Vedic  hymns  were  composed  1000 ,  1200, 
2000  or  3000  years  B.C. ,  no  power  on  earth  will  ever 
determine.  * 

It  is  not  correct  therefore  to  say,  as  some  people 
say,  that  Max  Mtiller  had  proved  that  1200-1000  B.C. 
is  the  date  of  the  Rg-Vedas.  t 

Other  authorities,  Schrader,  Tilak,  Jacobi,  and 
P.  C.  Sengupta  have  found  much  older  age  for  Rg-Vedic 
Indians  :  in  fact,  even  as  early  as  4000  B.C.,  for  some 
incidents  described  in  the  Rg-Vedas.*  But  their 
arguments,  being  based  on  interpretations  of  vague 
passages  assumed  to  refer  to  astronomical  phenomena 
have  not  commanded  general  recognition. 

Let  us  first  look  at  the  strata  within  the  Rg- V eda 
itself.  The  Rg-Vedas  are  divided  into  10  Mcmdalas 
(  lit.  circles  )  or  books.  Of  these,  the  2nd  to  the  8th 
books  are  ascribed  to  certain  priestly  families,  e.g, 
the  2nd  book  is  ascribed  to  Qritsamadas,  the  3rd  to 
the  ViSv&mitras ,  etc.  These  are  agreed  to  be  the 
oldest  parts  of  the  V edas. 

The  ninth  book  is  devoted  to  Soma  which  is  an 
intoxicating  drink  pressed  out  of  a  plant.  The  drink 
was  dear  to  the  Aryans  and  is  also  mystically 
identified  with  the  Moon. 

*  For  details  about  Vedic  antiquity,  see  Ancient  Indian 
Chronology  by  P.  C.  Sengupta. 

+  It  appears  that  Max  Muller  has  been  a  bit  dogmatic  in  his 
opinion.  Shortly  after  his  death  the  names  of  the  Vedic  gods,  Indr  a, 
Varuna,  Mitra  and  fHe  Njitatyas  in  their  Rg-Vedic  forms  were 
discovered  in  the  Hittite  clay  tablets  discovered  at  Boghaz  Kuei  in 
Asia  Minor.  They  have  been  assigned  to  about  1450  B.C.  More 
evidences  about  the  Vedic  Aryans  were  discovered  in  the  excavations  in 
the  Sarasvatl  valley  now  being  undertaken  by  the  Archaelogical  Dept, 
of  the  Govt,  of  India.  Further,  fresh  evidences  are  expected  also  in 
the  archaelogical  work  undertakenjn  Afghanistan,  Iran  and  Central 
Asia. 


The  first  and  the  tenth  books  are  miscellaneous 
collections  ascribed  to  different  authors.  They  are 
taken  to  be  the  latest  in  age. 

The  Rg-Vedas  consist  of  1028  hymns,  containing 
over  40,000  lines  of  verses. 

The  Vedas  are  regarded  as  ‘ &rutis ’  or  “revealed 
knowledge  preserved  by  hearing.”  According  to 
savants,  they  were  the  outpourings  of  the  heart  and 
mind ,  of  ancient  priestly  leaders,  to  their  gods  which 
were  mostly  forces  of  nature,  intermingled  very  often- 
with  secular  matter.  Priestly  families  were  trained 
to  memorize  the  texts  and  pass  them  on  to  succeding 
generations  in  ways  which  guaranteed  their  transmi¬ 
ssion  without  error  or  alteration  of  the  text. 
Savants  are  almost  unanimous  in  their  opinion  that 
the  Rg-Vedic  texts  which  were  composed  in  an  archaic 
form  of  Sanskrit,  which  was  not  completly  understood 
even  in  500  B.C,,  have  come  to  us  without  change. 
The  orthodox  Indian  view  that  they  are  revealed 
knowledge  is  of  course  not  shared  by  scholars,  both 
eastern  and  western,  who  point  out  that  very  often 
in  the  text  of  the  Vedas  themselves  and  in  Anukramaigis 
or  introductions  to  texts,  the  authqrs  of  each  hymn 
are  mentioned  by  name  and  family. 

To  which  locality  are  the  Vedas  to  be  ascribed  ? 

As  regards  locality,  they  are  certainly  to  be 
ascribed  to  parts  of  Afghanistan,  east  of  the  Hindukush 
and  the  Punjab.  The  rivers  of  the  Punjab,  the 
Indus  and  its  tributaries  on  both  sides  and  the  now 
lost  Sarasvatl  are  frequently  mentioned,  the  Ganges 
only  oncfe  in  a  later  text.  The  authors  call  themselves 
Aryas  or  Aryans,  in  contrast  to  the  Dasas  or  Dasyus 
who  were  alien  to  them,  and  with  whom  they  came 
in  frequent  clash.  The  Dasyus  are  now  taken  to  be 
partly  Indus  valley  people,  partly  aboriginals. 

The  Rg-Vedas  describe  a  highly  complex  society 
of  priests,  warriors,  merchants  and  artisans,  and  slaves 
but  the  rigid  caste  system  had  not  yet  developed. 
There  are  also  references  to  cities,  but  no  artefacts 
except  some  pottery,  have  yet  been  discovered  which 
can  be  referred  to  the  Rg-Vedic  Aryans. 

The  Rg-Vedic  Aryans,  it  appears,  were  con¬ 
temporaneous  (if  not  older)  with  the  great  civilizations 
of  Mesopotamia,  both  Sumerian,  and  later  Accadian, 
and  according  to  one  view,  some  of  the  royal  families 
of  Asia  Minor,  were  probably  'Vedic  Aryans'.  It  is 
therefore  quite  probable  that  they  had  attained  as 
high  a  stage  of  civilization  as  that  of  Egypt  of  the 
Pyramid  builders  (2700  BC.),  or  of  Sumer  and  Accad 
under  Sargon  I. 

Let  us  see  what  information  we  can  gather  about 
the  calendar  which  they  must  have  used,  for  no 
civilized  community  can  be  without  a  calendar. 


216 


REPORT  OP  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


Further,  the  whale  life  of  Vedic  Aryans  was  centred 
round  sacrifices  to  their  great  gods  ;  and  sacrifices  had 
to  be  carefully  timed  with  respect  to  seasons,  and 
moon's  phases.  In  fact,  some  sacrifices  were  year-long, 
as  Dr.  Martin  Haug,  the  great  Vedic  scholar  remarks 
in  his  introduction  (p.  46)  to  Aitarcya  Brahmaqa 
(affiliated  to  the  Rg-Veda). 

“The  Sattras  [or  sacrifices]  which  lasted  for  one  year, 
were  nothing  but  an  imitation  of  the  sun’s  yearly  course. 
They  were  divided  into  two  distinct  parts,  each  of  six 
months  of  thirty  days  each  ;  in  the  midst  of  both  was  the 
Viguvan,  i.e.,  equator,  or  central  day,  cutting  the  whole 
Sattra  into  two  halves”. 

This  refers  to  somewhat  later  times  than  the 
Rg-Veda,  but  even  during  these  early  times,  the 
sacrificial  cult  was  fully  developed.  Let  us  see  what 
references  we  get  about  the  calendar  from  the 
Rg-Vedic  times. 

Calendaric  and  Astronomical  References 
in  the  Rig-Vedas 

These  are  few,  find  interspersed  along  with  other 
matter.  This  is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  for  the  hymns 
are  addressed  chiefly  to  the  gods,  Agni  (sacrificial 
fire),  Indra  (the  national  warrior  god),  etc.,  and  other 
references  are  only  incidental.  The  direct  references 
are  found  only  in  Books  1  and  10  which  are  later  in 
age  than  the  family  books. 

Let  us  give  the  texts  of  a  few  hymns  and  their 
translations  in  English. 

Rg-Veda ,  1.164.11 

Dvadasa  ratii  nahi  tajjaraya  varvarfci  cakram 

paridyamrtasya 

A  putra  agne  mitbunaso  afcra  sapta  satani 

vim^atisca  tasthulj. 

Translation  :  The  wheel  (or  time)  having  twelve 
spokes  revolve  round  the  heavens,  but  it  does  not 
wear  out.  Oh  Agni  !  720  pairs  of  sons  ride  this 
(wheel). 

Here  the  year  is  likened  to  a  wheel,  having  '^2 
spokes' (or  months)  ;  the  720  pairs  of  sons  are  360  days 
and  nights. 

The  interpretation  commonly  accepted  is  that  the 
year  was  taken  to  consist  of  360  days  divided  into  12 
months,  and  the  night  and  the  day  (following  or 
preceding)  constitution  couple. 

Rg-  Veda,  1.164,48. 

Dvadasa  pradhayascakramfckam  trip!  nabhyani 

ka  u  tacciketa 

Tasmin  tsakarii  trisata  na  sankavo’rpitab 

sastitna  calpcalasah. 


Translation  :  Twelve  spoke-boards  :  One  wheel  t 
three  navels.  Who  understands  these  ?  In  these  there 
are  360  sankus  (rods)  put  in  like  pegs  which  do  not 
get  loosened”. 

The  year  is  compared  to  a  revolving  wheel,  whose 
circumference  is  divided  into  12  parts  (twelve  months). 
They  are  grouped  into  three  navels  (seasons). 

Here  also  we  have  a  year  of  360  days,  divided  into- 
12  months,  four  months  constituting  a  season,  as  we 
find  in  the  oldest  inscriptions. 

If  the  interpretation  of  the  last  passage  is  correct, 
we  have  the  earliest  reference  to  the  later  caturmasya 
system,  or  division  of  the  year  into  three  seasons  each 
of  four  months. 

It  appears  from  these  passages  that  Vedic  Aryans 
had  once  a  year  of  360  days  as  ancient  Egyptians  also 
had,  but  they  discovered  later  that  this  was  not  the 
correct  value  either  for  12  lunar  months,  or  for  a 
seasonal  year.  For  the  following  reference  shows  that 
they  used  also  a  thirteenth  month. 

Rg-  Veda,  1.  25.  8 

Veda  maso  dhrtavrato  dvadasa  prajavatab 

vedaya  upajayafce. 

Translation  :  Dhrtavrata  (  Varurui )  knows  the 
twelve  months  :  (and)  the  animals  created  during  that 
period ;  (and)  he  knows  (the  intercalary  month)' 
which  is  created  (near  the  twelve  months). 

This  passage  makes  it  clear  that  the  calendar 
was  luni-solar.  But  how  was  the  adjustment  made  ? 

A  hymn  in  the  Rg-Veda  first  noted  by  Tilak 
comes  to  our  help. 

Rg-  Veda,  4.  33.  7 

Dvadasa  dyun  yadagohyasya  tithye  raoannrbhab&U 

sasantaL 

Suksetrakrnvannanayam  ta  sindhun  dhanv'atiijtha 

nnofjadhir  nimnamapah- 

Translation  :  When  the  Rbhus  sleeping  for 
twelve  days  have  made  themselves  comfortable  as 
guests  of  the  unconcealable  (sun),  they  bring  the  fields 
in  good  order  and  direct  the  rivers.  The  plants  grow 
in  wildernesses,  and  lowland  is  spread  with  water”. 

According  to  Tilak,  the  Rbhus  are  the  genii  of 
seasons.  They  are  said  to  enjoy  the  hospitality  of 
the  sun  for  twelve  days  in  the  above  verse.  This 
passage,  according  to  Tilak  means  the  adjustment  of 
the  solar  year  with  the  lunar  (i.e.,  366 — 354  ■*  12 
days).» 


*  cf.  Ancient  Indian  Chronology,  Chapter  VI. 


INDIAN  CALENDAR 


217 


Another  hymn  from  Atharva  Veda  (4.11.11)  states 
-that :  ‘Prajapati,  the  lord  of  yearly  sacrifices  after 
-finishing  one  year’s  sacrifice,  prepared  himself  for  the 
next  year’s  sacrifice’. 

The  sacrificial  literature  of  India  still  preserves 
the  memory  of  these  days  by  ordaining  that  a  person 
wishing  to  perform  a  yearly  sacrifice  should  devote 
12  days  ( dvadasdha )  before  its  commencement  to  the 
preparatory  rites. 

Did  the  Rg-Vedic  Aryans  have  any  knowledge 
of  the  lunar  zodiac,  or  designate  the  days  by  the  lunar 
mansions,  as  we  find  widely  prevalent  during  later 
-times  ? 

There  is  no  explicit  reference  to  this  point,  but 
words  which  are  now  used  to  denote  the  lunar 
mansions  are  found  in  several  verses  of  the  Rg- 
Vedas,  e.g., 

Citra  (a  Virginis)  is  mentioned  in  RV.  4-51-2 

Magha  (a  Leonis  )  is  mentioned  in  RV.  10-85-13 
but  in  these  passages  the  meaning  of  these  words  is 
not  very  clear. 

The  following  references  are  more  explicit. 

Jig-  Veda,  5.  54.  13 

Yu?ma  dattrasya  Maruto  vicetaBo  rayah  syama 
rathyo  vayasvatalj  na  yo  yucchati  ti?yo  yatha 
divo'sme  raranta  Marutab  sahasrinam. 

Translation  :  You  wise  Maruts,  we  would  like  to 
“be  disposer  of  the  wealth  conferred  by  you  on  us  ;  it 
should  not  deviate  (from  us)  as  Ti?ya  does  not  deviate 
from  the  heavens. 

Here  one  is  tempted  to  identify  the  word  (Ti$ya’  with 
the  lunar  asterism  of  that  name,  viz.,  Pu$ya  (8  Cancri). 

The  following  reference  is  more  explicit. 

Jig-  Veda,  10.  85. 13 

Suryaya  vahatuh  pragat  savita  yamavasrjat 
Aghasu  hanyante  gavo’rjunyob  paryuhyate. 

Translation  :  The  (dowry)  of  cows  which  was 
given  by  Savita  (Sun)  had  already  gone  ahead  of  Suryd. 
-On  the  Agha-day,  the  cattle  were  slain  (acc.  to  Ssyaija 
had  departed),  on  the  two  Arjunl- days,  she  was  led 
to  the  bridegroom’s  house. 

This  passage  occurs  in  the  famous  bridal  hymn, 
where  the  Sun  god  ( Savitf )  gives  away  his  daughter 
JSurya  to  Soma  (Moon)  in  marriage.  It  says  that  on  the 
Agha-day  the  cowsv  given  as  bridal  dowry  are,  driven 
away  ;  on  the  two  Arjuni-days,  the  bride  goes  to  the 
bridegroom’s  house. 

This  hymn  is  repeated  in  the  Atharva  Safnhitd 
as  follows  : 


Atharva  Safnhitd,  14.1.13 

Suryaya  vahatuh  pragat  savita  yam  avasrjat 

Maghasu  hanyante  gavab  phalgunl?u  vyuhyate. 

Translation  :  The  first  line  is  identical.  In  the 
second  line,  the  only  change  is  Maghd  for  Aghd,  and 
Phalgunl  for  Arjuni.  In  the  lunar  zodiac,  Maghd 
stands  for  lunar  asterism  No.  10,  of  which  the  chief  star 
is  a  Leonis.  The  two  Phalgunl  stars,  Uttara  Phalgunl 
(No. 12)  and  Purva  Phalgunl  (No.  11)  stand  for  j3  Leonis 
and  8  Leonis. 

This  verse  shows  that  the  custom  of  designating 
the  day  (it  means  day  and  night)  by  the  lunar  asterism 
in  which  the  moon  is  found  in  the  night,  which  is 
found  widely  in  vogue  in  later  times,  and  is  used  even 
to-day  for  religious  purposes,  was  in  use  at  the  time 
when  this  hymn  was  written.  The  practice  therefore 
dates  earlier  than  1200  B.C.  at  least. 

Longer  periods  of  Time  :  The  Yaga 

‘Yuga  is  a  very  common  word  used  in  Indian 
literature  of  all  times  to  denote  an  integral  number  of 
years  when  certain  astronomical  events  recur.  It 
exactly  corresponds  to  the  Chaldean  word  ‘Saros’ 
which  has  gone  into  international  vocabulary.  In 
later  Indian  literature  we  have  Yugas  of  all  kinds  :  the 
five  yearly  yuga,  sixty  yearly  yuga,  and  Mahayugas  of 
4*32x10®  years.  Was  any  Yuga,  known  in  Rg-Vedic 
times  ?' 

There  is  evidence  that  some  kind  of  a  short  period 
yuga,  probably  the  five  yearly  yuga  of  later  times,  in 
which  the  moon's  phases  roughly  recur,  and  which 
was  the  chief  theme  of  the  Vedaiiga  Jyoti?a  was 
known  in  Rg-Vedic  times  as  the  following  quotation 
shows  : 

Rg-Satnhitd ,  1.158.6. 

Dirghatama  mamateyo  jujurvan  dasame  yuge 

apamartham  yatinam  Brahma  bbavati  sarathib- 

Translation  :  Dirghatama  the  son  of  Mamata 
having  grown  old  in  the  tenth  yuga  became  the 
charioter  of  the  karma  which  leads  to  semi-result. 

The  most  rational  explanation  of  the  word  yuga 
here  is  probably  the  five  yearly  yuga  of  Veddhga 
Jyoti?a  for  it  is  rational  to  expect  that  a  man  becomes 
old  after  he  attains  the  50th  year.  But  there,  have 
been  other  explanations. 

The  Seasons  and  the  Year 

The  most  commonly  used  tvord  for  year  in  the 
Indian  literature  is  Var?a  or  Vatsara.  The  word 
*  Versa ’  is  very  similar  to  For? d,  the  rainy  season, ^  and 
is  probably  derived  from  it.  But  curiously  enough, 
this  word  is  not  found  in  Rg-Vedas.  But  the  words 
&arad  (Autumn),  Hemanta  (early  Winter)  etc.,  are  very 
often  found  to  denote  ‘seasons1  and  sometimes  years. 


.REPORT  OP  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


218 

just  as  in  English  we  very  often  say  ‘A  young  lady  of 
eighteen  summers’. 

Summary  :  The  above  passages  show  that  the 
Rg-Vedic  Aryans,  who  must  be  placed  at  least  before 
1200  B.C.,  had  a  luni-solar  calendar,  and  used 
intercalary  months.  We  do  not  have,  however,  their 
names  for  the  12  months,  and  there  is  no  clue  to  find 
out  how  the  intercalary  month  which  is  mentioned 
at  one  place  was  introduced.  It  appears  that  they 
denoted  individual  days  by  the  nak$atra  i.e.,  by  the 
lunar  asterism  in  which  the  moon  is  found  at  the 
night,  and  hence  it  is  permissible  to  deduce  that  they 
used  the  lunar  zodiac  for  describing  the  motion  of 
the  moon.  There  is  no  mention  .of  the  tithi  {or  the 
lunar  day)  widely  used  in  Indian  calendars,  in  the 
Rg-Vedas.  The  solar  year  was  probably  taken  to 
consist  of  366  days,  of  which  12  were  dropped  for 
luni-solar  adjustment. 


5.3  CALENDARIC  REFERENCES  IN  THE 

YAJUR  VEDIC  LITERATURE 

¥ 

The  Atharva  Veda  ^consisting  mostly  of  magic 
incantations  also  contain  calendaric  references,  but 
we  shall  make  only  occasional  use  of  them,  as  the  text 
of  this  Veda  has  not  probably  come  to  us  in  unadul¬ 
terated  form,  for  the  Atharva  Veda  was  not  regarded 
as  holy  as  the  Rg-Veda. 

Of  the  two  other  Vedas,  the  Sama- Vedas  contain  no 
new  matter  than  what  is  contained  in  the  Rg-V eda. 
But  there  are  copious  calendaric  reference  in  the 
Yajurveda  for  obvious  reasons,  which  are  clearly 
brought  out  in  the  following  extracts  from  Winternitz’s 
introductry  remarks  to  Yajurvedic  studies  (p.  1*58-159)  : 

'‘‘The  two  Samhitas  [Rk  and  Atharva]  which  have  so  far 
been  discussed  have  in  common  the  fact  that  they  were  not 
compiled  for  special  liturgical  purposes.  Although  most 
of  the  hymns  of  the  Rg-Veda  could  be,  and  actually  were 
used  for  sacrificial  purposes,  and  although  the  songs  and 
spells  of  the  Atharvaveda  were  almost  throughout  employed 
for  ritualistic  and  magic  purposes,  yet  the  collection  and 
agrran&ement  of  the  hymns  in  these  Samhitas  have  nothing 
to  do  with  the  various  liturgical  and  ritualistic  purposes. 
The  hymns  were  collected  for  their  own  sake  and  arranged 
and  placed,  in  both  these  collections,  with  regard  to  their 
supposed  authors  or  the  singer-schools  to  which  they 
belonged,  partly  also  according  to  their  contents  and  still 
more  their  externftFfs**n-number  of  verses  and  such  like. 
They  are  as  we  may  say,  collections  of  songs  which  pursue  a 
literary  object. 

It  is  quite  different  with  the  Samhitas  of  the  two  other 
Vedas,  the  Samaveda  and  the  Yajurveda.  In  these  collections 
we1  find  the  songs,  verses,  and  benediotions  arranged 


according  to  their,  practical  purposes,  in  exactly  the  ordhr  in 
which  they  were  used  at  the  sacrifice.  These  are,  in  fact, 
nothing  more  than  prayer-books  and  song-books  for  the 
practical  use  of  certain  sacrificial  priests — not  indeed 
written  books,  but  texts,  which  existed  only  in  the  heads  of 
teachers  and  priests  and  were  preserved  by  means  of  oral 
teaching  and  learning  in  the  priests’  schools.* 

The  Yajurvedas  were  compiled  for  the  use  of  the 
Adhvaryu  priest  “ Executor  of  the  Sacrifice”  who  performs  all 
the  sacrificial  acts,  and  at  the  same  time  uttering  prose 
prayers  and  sacrificial  formulae  (Yajus).  They  are  the 
liturgical  Samhitas,  and  prayer  books  of  the  priests. 

Winternitz  gives  reasons  to  believe  that  the 
Samhitas  of  the  Black  Yajurveda  school  are  older  than 
those  of  the  White  school. 

Even  such  a  conservative  thinker  as  Berriedale 
Keith  gives  600  B.C.  as  the  terminus  ad  quern  for  the 
verses  of  the  Yajurveda  Samhita.  As  we  shall  see, 
there  are  references  which  point  to  a  much  earlier 
origin. 

The  Yajur-Veda  gives  the  names  of  twelve  months, 
and  the  names  of  the  lunar  mansions  with  their 
presiding  deities,  and  talks  of  the  sun’s  northemly  and 
southernly  motion.  We  do  not  give  the  texts  here, 
but  only  Dr.  Berriedale  Keith’s  translation. 

Taittiriya  Safnhitd,  4.4.11 

(a)  (Ye  are)  Madhu  and  Madhava,  the  months 

of  Spring. 

(b)  (Ye  are)  Sukra  and  Suci,  the  months  of  Summer. 

(c)  (Ye  are)  Nabha  and  Nabhasya,  the  months 

of  Rain. 

(d)  (Ye  are)  I?a  and  Urja,  the  months  of  Autumn. 

(e)  (Ye  are)  Sahas  and  Sahasya,  the  months 

,  of  (Early)  Winter  ( Hemanla ). 

(f)  (Ye  are)  Tapas  and  Tapasya,  the  months  of 

cool  season. 


*  There  are  two  schools  of  the  Yajurveda  Samhita  each  with 
a  number  of  recensions  as  shown  below  : 

1.  The  Black  Yajurveda  School,  with  the  following  recensions  : 

(a)  The  Kafhaka 

(b)  The  Kapistbala-Katha-Samhiti,  which  is  preserved  only 
in  a  few  fragments  of  manuscript. 

(c)  '  The  Maitr&yapl-Samhita— shortly  called  M.  8. 

(d)  The  Taittiriya-Samhita,  also  called  “Apastamba- 
SamhitS”  after  the  Apastaxnba-School,  one  of  the  chief 
schools  in  which  this  text  was  taught— shortly  called  T.  8. 

These  four  recensions  are  closely  inter-related,  and  are  designated 
as  belonging  to  the  “Black  Yajurveda”.  Differing  from  them  is  the 
White  Yajurveda  which  is  known  as  6ukla  Yajurveda. 

2.  The  V Sjasaney i-Sarbhita  shortly  called  V.  8.  which  takes  ita 
name  from  Yajnavalkya  VSjasaneya,  the  chief  teacher  of  this  Veda. 
Of  this  Vfijasaneyi-Samhitft  there  are  two  recensions,  that  of  the 
KApva  and  that  of  the  M&dhyandina-school,  which  however  differ 
very  little  from  each  other. 


INDIAN  CALENDAR 


219 


The  month-names  which  are  given  here  and 
repeated  in  many  other  verses  of  the  Yajur-Veda 
have  been  interpreted  by  all  authorities  to  be  tropical. 
Further  this  is  probably  the  earliest  mention  of  month- 
names  in  Indian  literature  ;  these  names  are  no  longer 
in  use,  and  have  been  replaced  by  lunar  month-names 
( Caitra ,  Vaiiakha,  etc.)  which  are,  however,  found  at  a 
later  stage. 

Madhu  and  M&dhava  have  been  taken  in  later 
literature  to  correspond  to  the  time-period  when  the 
sun  moves  from  — 30°  to  30°  along  the  ecliptic,  and 
so  on  for  the  other  months.  But  we  have  no  reason 
to  believe  that  the  Yajurvedic  priests  had  developed 
such  a  fine  mathematical  sense  of  seasonal  definition. 
But  it  is  almost  certain  that  they  must  have  developed 
some  method  of  observing  the  cardinal  points  of  the 
sun’s  yearly  course,  viz.,  the  two  solstices  and  the 
equinoxes.  From  these  observations,  they  must  have 
counted  that  the  number  of  days  in  a  year  was  366  in 
round  numbers. 

The  Yajur-Veda  speaks  in  many  places  of  the 
Utlarayana,  the  northernly  course  of  the  sun  from 
winter  solstice  to  summer  solstice  and  the  Daksiijayana 
or  the  southernly  course  from  summer  solstice  to 
winter  solstice  and  the  Vtquvan,  or  the  equinoctial 
point.  The  ayanas  or  courses  must  have  received 
their  designation  from  daily  notings  of  sunrise  on  the 
eastern  horizon.  The  year-long  observation  of  shadows 
cast  by  a  gnomon,  of  which  we  have  evidences,  may 
have  formed  an  alternative  method  for  fixing  up  the 
solstitial  days,  and  the  cardinal  points  on  the  horizon, 
[vide  Appendix  5-C),  where  some  passages  from  the 
Aitareya  Br&hmana  attached  to  the  Rg-Veda  are 
stated  in  favour  of  the  view  that  the  cardinal  points 
were  observed  by  means  of  the  gnomon. 

Once  they  learnt  to  anticipate  the  cardinal^  days, 
determination  of  the  month-beginnings  marking  seasons 
would  not  be  difficult.  The  Madhu- month  (the  first 
month  of  spring)  would  begin  30  or  31  days  before  the 
vernal  equinox  day  or  61  days  after  the  winter  solstice 
day,  and  the  M&dhava  month  on  the  day  after  the 
equinoctial  day  and  so  on.  Average  length  of  30$ 
days  (=Tnr)  would  be  given  to  each  month,  or  30  and 
31  days  to  the  two  months  forming  a  season. 

The  Naksbatras 

One  of  the  peculiar  features  of  the  Indian 
calendars  is  the  use  of  the  Nak?atras  as  explained  in 
§  4’1.  Evidences  have  "titeen  given  that  the  custom 
started  from  Rg-Vedic  times.  But  we  come  across  a 
full  list  of  Naltfatras  only  in  the  Yajurveda  with 
names  of  presiding  deities  as  given  in  Table  No.  10 
(  p.  220 ),  taken  from  Dlk§it’s  Bh&ratiya  Jyotii&stra. 


There  are  several  points  to  be  noticed  in  this  list, 
which  may  be  compared  with  the  list  given  on  p.  210. 

First,  the  nak$atras  start  with  Krttik&s  which  all 
authorities  identify  with  the  conspicuous  group 
Pleiades.  What  is  the  significance  of  this  ? 

At  the  present  times,  the  nak^atras  start  with 
Aivinl,  of  which  the  junction  star  is  a  or  0  Arietis. 
This  custom,  Aiviny&di,  was  introduced  in  Siddhanta 
Jyoti$a  time  (  500  A.D. ),  when  the  astronomical  first 
point  of  Aries  was  near  the  end  of  the  Revatl 
nak$aira  (  (  Pisdum ),  or  the  beginning  of  Aivinl. 
W  e  do  not  enter  into  the  controversy  about  the  exact 
location  of  this  point  by  the  Siddhanta  astronomers, 
which  is  fully  discussed  in  Appendix  5-B.  At  present, 
the  astronomical  first  point  had  shifted  by  as  much  as 
19°  from  (  Pisdum,  but  the  orthodox  Indian  calendar 
makers  do  not  admit  in  the  continued  precession  of  the 
equinoxes,  and  still  count  the  nak$atras  from  Aivinl. 

In  all  older  literatures,  on  the  other  hand,  including 
the  great  epic  Mahabharata,  whose  composition  or 
compilation  may  be  dated  about  400  B.C.,  the  first 
nak$atra  is  Krttika.  It  therefore  stands  to  reason  to 
assume  that  at  one  time,  when  the  naksatra  enumeration 
started,  the  Pleiades  were  close  to  the  astronomical 
first  point  of  Aries,  or  rose  near  the  true  east.  This 
is  implied  in  the  following  verse  which  S.  B.  Dlk?it 
picked  out  of  the  Satapatha  Br&hmana  : 

Satapatha  Brahmana,  2.1.2. 

Ekam  dve  tripi  catvariti  va  anyani 
nak^atranyathaita  eva  bhiiyis^ha  yat  krttika.... 

Eta  ha  vai  pracyai  diso  na  cyavante 
sarvani  ha  va  anyani  nak$atrani 
pracyai  disascyavante. 

Translation  : — Other  nak$atras  have  one,  two, 
three  or  four  (  stars  )  only  ;  these  Krttikas  have  many 
(  stars )..  .They  do  not  deviate  from  the  east;  all 
other  nakqatras  deviate  from  the  east. 

The  names  as  given  in  this  list  are  somewhat 

different  from  those  now  adopted,  which  have  come 

into  vogue  since  500  A.D.;  for  example,  we  have  : 

No.  6  Ti$ya  for  Pugya 

No.  16  RohiijI  for  Jye§tha 

(  There  are  thus  two  Rohixjls,  No.  2,  and  No.  16 ). 

No.  17  Vicrtau  for  Mala 
/  *  / 

No.  20  Sroi)5  for  Sravaija 
No.  21  Sravigtha  for  Dhani§tha 
No.  23  Pro§^hapada  for  Bhadrapada 
.  No.  26  Asvajuya  for  AsvinI 
No.  27  Apabharaijl  for  BharaijI 

The  more  important  question  is  whether  the  lunar 
mansions  denote  definite  clusters  of  stars,  or  the 
nak§atra-divisions  of  later  times,  amounting  to  13°  20' 
dr  800'  minutes  ?  This  point  has  been  discussed  in  §  4’1. 


C.  R.-36 


220 


REPORT  OP  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 

Table  10. 

Names  of  Nakshatras  in  the  Yajurveda  with  their  Presiding  Deities 


No,  Name  of  Presiding  Number 

Nak?atra  Deity  (Grammatical) 


1. 

Kpttika 

Agni 

P 

'2. 

Rohini 

Prajapati 

•s 

3. 

Mpgasirga 

Soma 

S 

Invaka 

IJ 

P 

•4. 

Ardra 

Rudra 

s 

Bahu 

»» 

D 

5. 

Puuarvasu 

Aditi 

D 

6. 

Tigya 

Brhaspati 

S 

7. 

Asrega 

Sarpa 

P 

8. 

Magha 

Pitr 

P 

9. 

Phaiguni 

Purva  Phaiguni 

Aryama 

D 

10. 

Phaiguni 

Uttar  a  Phaiguni 

Bhaga 

D 

11. 

Hasta 

Savita 

S 

12. 

Citra 

Indra,  Tvagfa 

S 

,13. 

Svati 

Ni?tya 

Vayu 

s 

14. 

Yisakha 

Indragni 

D 

15. 

Anuradha 

Mitra 

P 

16. 

Rohipi 

Jyegtha 

Indra 

S 

17. 

Vieptau 

Pitp 

D 

MQlabarhapi,  Mula 

Nirrti,  Prajapati 

S 

18. 

A  gad  ha 

Purvagadha 

A  pah 

P 

19. 

Agadha 

Uttar  5gadha 

Yisvedeva 

P 

— 

Abhijit 

Brahma 

s 

20. 

$ropa 

Yignu 

s 

21. 

k5ravigtha 

Vasu 

4  p 

22. 

^atabhigak 

Indra,  Varuna 

s 

23. 

Progphapada 

Purva  Pro^hapada 

Ajaekapad 

"  p 

24. 

Progthapada 

Uttara  Progthapada 

Ahirbudhniya 

p 

26. 

Revati 

Pusa 

s 

26. 

Asvayuja 

ABvin 

D 

27. 

Apabharani 

Yama 

P 

Principal 

Star 

Longitude 

(1950'0) 

Latitude 

v  Tauri 

59° 

1  17' 

39" 

+ 

4° 

2' 

46" 

a  Tauri 

69 

5 

25 

— 

5 

28 

14 

A  Orionis 

83 

0 

31 

— 

13 

22 

32 

a  Orionis 

88 

3 

22 

- 

16 

1 

59 

ft  Geminorum 

112 

31 

29 

+ 

6 

40 

51 

8  Cancri 

128 

1 

23 

+ 

0 

4 

32 

£  Hydrae 

131 

38 

59 

- 

11 

6 

25 

a  Leonis 

149 

8 

1 

+ 

0 

27 

48 

S  Leonis 

160 

36 

52 

+ 

14 

19 

58 

ft  Leonis 

170 

55 

23 

+ 

12 

16 

13 

8  Corvi 

192 

45 

23 

_ 

12 

11 

31 

a  Virginis 

203 

8 

37 

- 

2 

3 

4 

a  Bootis 

203 

32 

8 

+ 

30 

46 

3 

a  Libra 

224 

23 

7 

+ 

0 

20 

19 

S  Scorpii 

241 

52 

23 

- 

1 

58 

49 

a  Scorpii 

249 

3 

51 

— 

4 

33 

50 

A  Scorpii 

263 

53 

14 

— 

13 

46 

56 

8  Sagittarii 

273 

52 

55 

- 

6 

27 

58 

0  Sagittarii 

281 

41 

11 

— 

3 

26 

36 

a  Lyrae 

284 

36 

54 

+ 

61 

44 

7 

a  Aquilae 

301 

4 

16 

+ 

29 

18 

18 

ft  Delphini 

315 

38 

38 

+ 

31 

55 

21 

A  Aquarii 

340 

52 

38 

- 

0 

23 

8 

a  Pegasi 

352 

47 

19 

+ 

19 

24 

25 

7  Pegasi 

8 

27 

32 

+ 

12 

35 

55 

f  Piscium 

19 

10 

40 

_ 

0 

12 

52 

ft  Arietis 

33 

16 

18 

+ 

8 

29 

7 

41  Arietis 

47 

30 

19 

+ 

10 

26 

48 

8= Singular  ;  D=Dual ;  P= Plural. 


The  Lunar  Month-Names 

The  solar  month-names  given  earlier  have  not 
gone  into  geriefij^  currency.  The  month-names 
generally  used  are  of  lunar  origin  as  given  in  §  5*7. 
These  names  are  first  found  in  the  Taittiriya  SafnhitZ 
74.8,  and  in  many  other  places  of  the  Yajur-Veda 
literature,  but  in  a  somewhat  different  form.  We 
quote  parts  of  the  passage. 


Taittiriya  Safnhiia,  7.4,8. 

Samvatsarasya  yat  phaiguni  purnamaso  mukhata 
eva  samvatsaramarabhya  dikfante  tasyai  kaiva 
nirya-yat  sammedhye  viguvant  sampadyate 
Citra  purnamase  dikgeran  mukham  va  etat  samvatsarasya 
yat  citra  purpamaso  mukhata  eva. . . 

Translation  .—One  should  get  consecrated  on  the 
Fhaigttni  full-moon  day  because  Phdlguna  full  moon 
is  the  “mouth”  of  the  year.  Hence,  (  such  people  )  are 


INDIAN  CALENDAR 


221 


taken  as  consecrated  from  the  very  beginning  of  the 
year.  But  such  people  have  to  accept  one  ‘niryd,’ 
( draw  back ),  viz.,  that  the  *  Viquvan*  occurs  in 
the  cloudly  season  (  sammedhya  ).  Hence,  one  should 
consecrate  on  the  Citrd  full-moon  day.  The  Citrd  full 
moon  month  is  the  ‘mouth’  of  the  year. 

From  these  passages,  we  learn  that  the  lunar  month 
came  gradually.  The  ancient  Indians  reckoned  by 
the  pak$a  or  the  fortnight,  and  distinguished  the 
closing  full  moon  day  of  the  pak$a  by  the  nak$atra 
where  the  moon  was  full.  Thus  Phalguni  Pamnamasi 
is  that  full  moon  when  the  moon  gets  full  near  the 
Uttara  Phalguni  star  ( (3  Leonis  ),  one  of  the  lunar 
mansions.  Caitrx  Paurnamasi  is  that  full  moon,  when 
the  moon  gets  full  near  the  Citrd.  star  (  a  Virginis  ), 
which  is  the  14th  lunar  mansion.  Later,  as  the  months 
were  always  full-moon  ending,  the  word  pauriyam&si 
was  dropped,  and,  e.g.,  the  first  part  of  Caitra- Paumya- 
masi,  i.e.,  Caitra  became  the  lunar  month-name.  The 
above  passage  says  that  the  Phalguna  Paurnamasi 
was  regarded  as  the  last  day  of  the  year  and  less 
frequently  the  Caitra  Paurnamasi.  This  system  still 
continues,  and  the  first  lunar  month  Caitra  of  the  lunar 
year  begins  on  the  day  after  Phalguni  Paurnamdsi. 

There  are  twenty-seven  nak$atras  and  so  only  12 
can  be  selected  for  lunar  month-names. 


The  twelve  names  which  we  have  got  are  : 


Caitra 

from 

Citra 

(No.  14) 

Vaisakha 

si 

Visakha 

(  „  16) 

Jyai§tha 

11 

Jyegtha 

(  „  18) 

A§a<Jha 

IS 

A§adha 

(  „  20  &  21 ) 

Sravaxja 

11 

Sravaqa 

( „  22  ) 

Bhadra 

11 

Bhadrapada 

(  „  25  &  26  ) 

Asvina 

» 

AsvinI 

(„  1*) 

Kartika 

11 

Krttika 

U  3) 

Margaslr§a 

11 

Mrgasiras 

(.,  5*) 

Pau§a 

A) 

Pu§ya 

(„  8) 

Magha 

11 

Magha 

{>,  10) 

Phalguna 

ii 

Phalguni 

(  „  11  &  12) 

Of  course,  full  moon  takes  place  by  turn  in  all 
the  nak$atras.  But  only  12  at  approximately  equal 
intervals  could  be  selected.  But  we  have  too  Bauhiryya 
paurnamasi  etc.  the  pak$a  when  the  moon  becomes 
full  near  Bohiryi,  or  Aldebaran  ( lunar  mansion  No.  4). 
But  Rauhiiyya  was  not  selected  for  the  name  of  a 
lunar  month,  because  it  was  too  near  Kfttikd-Paurrya- 
masi. 

Tithi 

‘ Tithi ’  or  'Lunar  Day’  is  a  very  important  concep¬ 
tion  in'  Hindu  astronomy,  for  holidays  are  always  dated 
by  the  tithi..  According  to  Siddhantic  definition,  a  tithi 


is  completed  when  the  moon  is  ahead  of  the  sun  by 
12°,  or  integral  multiples  of  12°  (  vide  §  5‘7). 

Thus  the  first  tithi  (  Pratipada ,  lit.  when  the  moon 
is  regenerated  )  in  the  waxing  half  starts  when  the 
moon  is  in  conjunction  with  the  sun,  and  ends  when 
she  has  gone  ahead  of  the  sun  by  12°,  when  the 
second  tithi  of  the  waxing  moon  begins.  The  tithis 
are  numbered  ordinally  from  1  to  15,  the  end  of  the 
fifteenth  tithi  being  full-moon.  Then  begins  the 
tithis  of  the  waning  moon,  numbered  from  1  to  15, 
the  end  of  the  15th  tithi  being  the  new-moon.  There 
are  thirty  tithis  in  a  lunar  month,  and  though  the 
average  duration  is  less  than  a  solar  day,  being  23.62 
hours,  the  length  of  individual  tithis  may  vary  from 
26.8  to  20.0  hours.,  on  account  of  irregularity  in  the 
moon’s  motion. 

This  is  the  definition  of  the  tithi  given  in 
Siddhantas  or  scientific  astronomy  which  started  about 
400  A  .D.  But  this  presupposes  knowledge  of  measure¬ 
ment  of  angles,  and  precise  scientific  observation,  of 
which  we  find  no  trace  in  the  Vedic  literature.  What 
was  then  the  origin  of  this  system  ? 

We  have  no  reference  to  tithi  in  the  Rg-Veda. 
The  first  reference  is  found  in  Yajurvedic  literature, 
and  the  Brdhmaiyas.  The  Taitlhlya  Satnhitd  talks  of 
the  paftcadasi  tithi,  which  shows  that  the  lunar  pakqa 
was  divided  into  15  tithis,  counted  by  ordinal  numbers 
from  1  to  15  for  each  pak$a.  But  what  was  the  time- 
period  meant  by  a  tithi  ?  The  Aitareya  Brahmarya 
attached  to  the  Rg-Veda  gives  the  following  definition 
of  the  tithi. 

Aitareya  Brahmana,  32.10 
Yam  paryastamiyad  abhyudiyaditi  sa  tithilji. 

The  tithi  is  that  time-period  about  which  the 
moon  sets  or  rises. 

This  has  been  interpreted  by  Prof.  P.  C.  Sengupta 
as  follows  : 

During  the  waxing  moon  (  sukla  pak$a  ),  the  tithi 
was  reckoned  from  moon-set  to  moon-set  ;  and  during 
the  waning  moon  ( kf^tya  pak$a ),  the  tithi  was 
reckoned  from  moon-rise  to  moon-rise.  The  tithis 
were  thus  of  unequal  length,  as  shown  by  Prof.  P.  C. 
Sengupta  in  Table  No.  11  on  page  222. 


5.4  THE  VEDANGA  JYOTISHA  CALENDAR 

The  history  of  the  Indian  calendar  from  the  end 
of  the  Yajurveda  period  to  the  beginning  of  the 
Siddhanta  Jyotiqa  period  is  very  imperfectly  known 
though  there  are  plenty  of  calendaric  references 
in  the  Brahmanas,  Sutras,  and  the  epic  Mahabharata 
and  various  literature.  On  time-scale,  it  extends  from 


222 


REPORT  OP  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


Table.  11. 


Deration  of  Vedic  Tithi 


English 

Date 

Modern 

Tithi 

Ending  of  Vedic  Tithi 

Duration  of 
Vedic  Tithi 

Vedic  Elapsed 
Tithi  No. 

Event 

Time  of  Event  | 
(L.  M.  T.-Cal.)  | 

(1936  A.D.) 

h 

m 

h 

m 

Oct.  15 

Amavasya 

Moonset  or  Sunset 

17 

34 

— 

— 

16 

Pratipad 

»* 

17 

33 

— 

— 

17 

Dvitiya 

Moonset 

18 

36 

25 

3 

1 

18 

Trtiya  j 

19 

16 

24 

40 

2 

19 

Caturthi  1 

20 

3 

24 

45 

3 

20 

Pancami 

20 

53 

24 

50 

4 

21 

§a9thi 

21 

.46 

24 

53 

5 

22 

SaptamI 

22 

41 

24 

55 

6 

23 

Agfam  i 

23 

38 

24 

57 

7 

24 

Navami 

n 

24 

36 

24 

58 

8 

25 

Dasami 

w 

25 

35 

59 

9 

26 

Ekadasi 

v* 

26 

35 

25 

0 

10 

27 

Dvadasi 

r> 

27 

37 

25 

2 

11 

28 

Trayodasi 

*» 

28 

42 

25 

5 

12 

29 

Caturdasi 

Moonset 

29 

49 

25 

7 

13 

30 

’  Purpima 

Moonrise  or 

17 

22 

11 

33 

14 

Sunset 

31 

Pratipad  & 

Moonrise 

18 

18 

24 

56 

15 

Dvitiya 

Nov.  1 

Trtiya 

» 

19 

18 

25 

0 

16 

2 

Caturthi 

w 

20 

20 

25 

2 

17 

3 

Pancami 

* 

21 

23 

25 

3 

18 

4 

Sast-hi 

22 

23 

25 

0 

19 

5 

Saptami 

„ 

23 

21 

24 

.58 

20 

6 

Agtami 

24 

14 

24 

53 

21 

7 

Navami 

„ 

25 

7 

24 

53 

22 

8 

Dasami 

« 

25 

58 

24 

51 

23 

9 

Ekadasi 

26 

47 

24 

49 

24 

10 

Dvadasi 

» 

27 

37 

24 

50 

25 

11 

Trayodasi 

w 

28 

27 

24 

50 

26 

12 

Caturdasi 

Moohrise 

29 

17 

24 

50 

27 

13 

»> 

Sunrise 

30 

14 

24 

57 

28 

14 

Amavasya 

Sunset 

17 

15 

11 

1 

29 

Nov.  15 

Pratipad 

Moonset 

18 

0 

24 

45 

1 

Note  : — The  Vedic  tithi  ends  at  moonset  in  the  light  half  and  at  moonrise  in  the  dark  half.  Near  amavasya. 
when  the  moon  remains  invisible,  the  ending  is  at  sunset.  There  are  29  or  30  such  tithis  in  a  lunar  month,  and  all 
Itbis  are  of  more  than  24  hours’  duration  except  amavasya  and  pUrnima  which  are  of  about  12  hours’  duration. 


an  unknown  antiquity*  which  is  set  by  some  at  1300 
B.C.  ttrSOO  A.D. 

The  VedMga  JyotifQ  is  generally  assigned  to  this 
period.  It  may  be  said  to  be  a  sort  of  collection  of 
short  aphorisms  giving  mathematical  rules  for  fixing 
the  calendar  in  advance,  and  is  known  in  three 
versions :  the  Rg-Jyoti§a  consisting  of  36  verses, 
attached  to  the  Rg-Veda  and  ascribed  to  one  Lagadha 


as  mentioned  earlier,  the  Yajus  Jyoti§a  attached  to 
the  Yajurveda  and  consisting  of  43  verses,  and  there 
is  a  text  ascribed-to  one  Somakara,  a  commentator  of 
unknown  age  of  the  Vedas.  The  dffferent  texts 
contain  about  the  same  matter,  but  the  verses  are 
haphazardly  arranged  showing  that  the  original  texts 
have  not  come  down  to  us  in  an  unadulterated  form. 
The  number  of  independent- verses  in  all  the  versions 


INDIAN  CALENDAE 


223 


is  not  more  than  49,  and  some  of  the  verses  have, 
not  been  interpreted. 

There  are  several  other  calendarical  treatises  which 

V 

can  be  assigned  to  this  period.  The  JSurya  Prajfiapii, 
a  Jaina  astronomical  work,  the  Jyotisakaranda,  and 
the  K&l&lokaprakaia . 

A  short  account  of  the  calendaric  rules  followed 
in  these  treatises  is  given  in  Varahamihira’s  Pafiea 
Siddhantikd,,  Chap.  XII,  where  the  rules  are  collected 
as  ‘‘Paitamaha  Siddhanla”  or  Astronomical  Calendar 
according  to  Grandfather  Brahma,  the  Creator,  in 
Hindu  mythology.  That  shows  the  high  antiquity 
the  rules.  Varahamihira,  as  well  as  Brahmagupta 
describe  the  rules  as  very  “inaccurate”  ( DUravibhra§\au , 
furthest  from  truth  in  Varahamihira’s  language)  though 
they  pay  a  formal  courtesy  to  the  supposed  authors. 
But  such  has  been  the  case  with  calendars  of  all 
ancient  nations,  including  the  Babylonians  at  this 
period  and  a  critical  account  of  the  Vedaiiga  Jyotiga 
is  important  from  the  historical  point  of  view. 

It  may  be  remarked  here  that  there  are  minor 
differences  between  Vedaiiga  Jyoti?a,  the  Jain  systems, 
and  the  Paitamaha  Siddhanla,  which  appear  to  be 
the  latest  of  this  group.  The  older  treatises  have  a 
year  of  366  days,  while  the  Paitamaha  Siddhdnta  has 
a  year  of  365'3569  days  (Dlk§it). 

There  is  an  extensive  literature  on  Vedaiiga  Jyoti$a 
which  has  been  studied  by  Dr.  G.  Thibaut,  S.  B.  Dlkgit, 
S.  K.  Pillai,  and  Dr.  R.  Shama  Sastry,  amongst  others. 
We  here  give  an  account  of  the  calendar  according 
-to  the  Paitamaha  Siddhanla. 

Summary  of  the  Contents 

“Five  years  constitute  a  Tuga  or  Saros  of  the  sun 
and  the  moon. 

The  yuga  comprises  1830  savana  days  (civil  days) 
and  1860  tithis  (lunar  days). 

In  the  yuga,  there  are  62  lunar  months  and  60  solar 
months.  So  two  months  are  omitted  as  intercalary 
months,  in  a  period  of  5  years. 

The  number  of  omitted  tithis  in  the  period 
is  30. ' 

There  are  67  nak^atra-months  (sidereal  months)  in 
the  yugoi  The  moon  passes  through  67  x  27  =  1809 
nakqatras  within  this  period. 

The  yuga  begins  ar*winter  solstice  with  the  sun, 
and  the  moon  together  at  the  Dhani$\ha  asterism 
(<  or  /3  Delphini)” 

These  are  the  main  points  from  which  the  five 
yearly  calendar  can  be  constructed. 


The  Vedaiiga  Jyotiga  further  describes  measure¬ 
ments  of  the  subdivisions  of  the  day  by  means  of  the 
clepsydra,  as  well  as  by  gnomon- shadows. 

One  particular  feature  is  the  assumption  that  the 
ratio  of  the  length  of  the  day  to  that  of  the  night  on 
the  summer  solstice  day  is  as  3. :  2. 

Let  us  now  examine  these  points  critically. 

We  observe  that  all  the  mathematical  rules  point 
out  only  to  mean  motions  of  the  sun  and  the  moon,  i.e , 
the  periods  of  the  sun  and  the  moon  were  obtained  by 
counting  the  number  of  savana  days  in  a  large  number 
of  years  and  months,  and  dividing  the  number  by  the 
number  of  periods  (year  or  month).  No  evidence  is 
found  of  the  systematic  day  to  day  observations  of 
the  sun  and  the  moon.  Only  the  lunar  zodiac  was 
used  for  describing  the  positions  of  the  sun  and  the 
moon,  which  appears  to  have  been  divided  into  27 
equal  parts  or  nakgatras  ;  in  other  words  the  nakyatras 
no  longer  denoted  star-clusters  but  equal  divisions  of 
the  lunar  belt. 

There  is  no  mention  of  the  zodiac  or  twelve  signs 
of  the  zodiac,  or  of  week  days,  or  of  planetary  motion. 

Let  us  now  look  critically  into  the  rules. 

5  solar  years  =  365.2422  x  5  =  1826.2116  days  ; 

62  synodic  months  =  2953059  x  62 — 1830.8965  days  ; 

67  sidereal  months =27.32166  x  67  =  1830.5512  days. 

Therefore,  regarded  as  a  measure  for  luni-solar 
adjustment,  the  error  is  4.685  days  in  a  period  of  5 
years,  i.e.,  if  we  started  a  yuga  with  the  sun  and  the 
moon  together  on  the  winter  solstice  day,  the 
beginning  of  the  next  yuga  (6th  year)  would  occur  4.685 
days  later  than  the  winter  solstice  and  in  5  to  6  yugas 
the  discrepancy  would  amount  to  a  month  ur  half 
season.  This  cannot  escape  notice,  and  therefore 
there  must  have  been  some  way  of  bringing  back  the 
yuga  to  the  winter  solstice  day.  Otherwise  the  calendar 
becomes  useless.  But  how  could  it  have  been 
done  ? 

This,  is  a  matter  for  conjecture  and  several 
hypotheses  have  been  proposed.  According  to  S.  B^ 
Dlk§it,  we  should  have  in  95  years  : 

according  to  the  V.  J., §  x  95  -  38  intercalary  months, 
while  actually  we  have,  x95  =  35  intercalary  months. 

So  the  Vedaiiga  Jyotiqa  rules  introduce  3  more 
intercalary  months  than  necessary  in  95  years,  and  if 
these  are  dropped,  we  can  have  good  adjustment.  This 
could  have  been  done  as  follows  : 

In  the  first  period  of  30  years  =  6  yugas,  suppose 
they  had  11  intercalary  months  instead  of  12. 

The  beginning  of-  the  yuga  would  go  ahead  of  the 
winter  solstice  in  30  years  by  4'685  x  6=28.110  days. 


224 


REPORT  OP  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


But  if  we  do  not  have  the  intercalary  month  on  the 
30th  ye&r,  the  t/M^a-beginning  is  brought  back  to 
29.53—  28.1l6— 1.421  days  before  the  W.S.  day.  The 
same  process  is  repeated  for  the  next  period  of  30 
years.  The  ^j/^ft-beginning  is  thus  brought  back  to 
2.842  days  before  the  W.S.  day. 

The  next  period  may  be  taken  to  consist  of  35 
years,  i.e.,  7  yugas  each  of  five  years,  in  which  the  yuga- 
beginning  goes  ahead  by  3.264  days.  The  combined 
result  of  the  three  periods  of  30,  30,  and  35  years  is  to 
put  the  yuga  beginning  ahead  of  the  W.S.  day  by  0.422 
days  only.  Other  conjectural  cycles  are  described  by 
Dr.  Shama  Sastry. 

But  was  any  such  practice  really  followed  ?  We 
have  no  evidence  from  the  verses  ;  but  S.  B.  Dlkjit 
mentions  that  intercalary  months  were  inserted  only 
when  needed,  and  hence  probably  they  were  'dropped 
when  not  needed.’ 

Tlthis 

The  main  object  of  the  Vedanga  Jyoti$a  calendar 
appears  to  have  been  the  correct  prediction  of  the 
tithi  and  nak^atra  op  any  sHvana  (civil)  day  within  the 
yuga.  In  this  respect,  the  rules  were  more  accurate. 
A  tithi  is  defined  as  5gth  of  the  lunar  month.  The 
correct  measure  is 

1  tithi =29^588  _  984353  daySj 

while  the  measure  taken  *  =  .983871  days.  The 

mistake  is  .000482  days  on  the  lower  side  or  one  tithi 
in  2075  days  or  in  5f  years. 

The  five  yearly  period  consists  of  .1830  civil  days 
in  which  there  are  62  synodical  months. 

We  know  62x29.53059  =  1830.8965  days.  t  Hence 
in  order  to  make  the  tithi  calculations  correct,  one  day 
(exactly  0.8965  days)  had  to  be  added  to  t^e  total 
number  of  civil  days  in  the  period. 

Nakshatraa 

The  days  were  named  according  to  the  nak$atras  or 
lunar  asterisms  in  which  the  moon  was  found,  and  a 
lot  of  crude  astrology*  had  grown  up  round  this 
system.  So  it  was  necessary  to  predict  the  nakpatra 
in  advance;  The  Vedanga  Jyoti$a  calendar  prescribed 
some  methods  for  such  predictions. 

In  a  five  yearly  period  of  1830  days,  the  sidereal 
revolutions  of  the  moon  amounted  to  67  in  which 
there  are  1809  yygkfatws. 

Actually  1  nakpatra  day =-27'^166 = 1.011913  days, 

while  the  measure  taken  =  =  1.011608  days. 

•Astrology  based  only  on  the  sun  and  the  moon.  Later  post- 
Biddhintic,  astrology  in  India  is  largely  Graeco-Chaldean,  and  makeB 
use  of  the  signs  of  the  zodiac,  and  of  planetary  position  and  motion. 


The  mistake  was  .000305  days  on  the  lower  side  or 
1  nakpatra  in  3279  days  or  about  9  years. 

The  Time  of  the  Vedanga  Jyotisha 

All  recensions  of  the  Vedanga  Jyoti§a  contain  the 
following  verses  : 

Svarakramete  somarkau  yada  sakarii  savasavau 

Sya tfcadadi yugarii  maghastapalj.suklo’yanaih  hyudak.  (6) 

Prapadyete  sravisthadau  auryacandramasavudak 

Sarpardhe  daksinarkastu  maghasravanayoh  sada.  (7) 

These  two  verses  taken  together  yield  the  following  : 

The  winter  solstice  took  place  at  the  lunar 
asterism  &ramp1,ha,  which  is  later  called  Dhanip\ha. 

This  is  the  21st  nakpatra  in  the  Krttikadi  system 
and  23rd  in  the  Asvinyadi  system  and  its  component 
stars  are  a,  /3,  y  and  8  Delphini.*  These  stars  are  far 
away  from  the  ecliptic.  We  have  for  1950  : 


a  Delphini, 

Long.  =  316° 

41' 

Lat. 

=  +33' 

*  2' 

6 

1! 

CO 

Ul 

39 

n 

=  +31 

55 

y 

-318 

40 

=  +32 

41 

8 

„  “318 

35 

a 

=  +31 

57 

The  Arabs  have  [i  and  £  Aquarii  which  also 
represent  the  Chinese  Hsiu. 

It  has  been  stated  in  the  Vedanga  Jyotipa  that  the 
junction  star  of  the  asterism  was  placed  at  the 
beginning  of  the  division  and  it  marked  the  beginning 
of  Uttarayana  or  the  W.S.  day.  Thus  the  star 
representing  the  Dhanip\ha  division  had  270°  as  the 
longitude  at  the  time  when  the  tradition  of  the  Vedanga 
Jyotipa  calendar  was  formulated.  If  a  Delphini  is  taken 
as  the  principal  star  of  the  asterism,  then  its  longitude 
was  270°  at  the  time  of  the  Vedanga  Jyotipa  and  in  1950, 
its  longitude  is  316°  41'.  As  the  solstices  take  about 
72  years  to  retrograde  through  one  degree,  the  time  of 
Vedaiiga  Jyotipa  is  found  to  be  (316°  41' — 270°)  x  72  = 
46 •  °7  x  72  =  3362  years  before  1950  A.D.  or  1413  B.C. 
The  star  f3  Delphini,  however,  yields  a  somewhat  lower 
period,  i.e,,  about  1338  B.C. 

The  Plan  of  the  Calendar 

In  a  period  of  5  years,  there  are  ; — 

1830  civil  days, 

62  lunar  months,  and  so  1860  tithis, 

67  sidereal  months  and  so  1809  mkpatras. 

As  the  period  contains  60  solar  months,  there  are 
2  intercalary  months  which  are  placed  after  every 


*  On  a  Dhanipfha  day  the  moon  got  conjoined  with  both  the 
p  and  a  Delphinis  at  interval  of  2  hours. 


tndian  calendar 


2J5 


30  lunar  months.  Thus  in  the  third  year,  the  month 
&r&vana  is  adhika  which  is  followed  by  Suddha 
&ravana  ;  and  in  the  fifth  year  the  last  month  is  also 
adhika  which  is  adhika  Magha, 

There  are  1860  tithis  while  the  number  of  civil 
days  is  1830  ;  so  there  are  30  omitted  tithis  ( tithi  k$aya). 
Each  period  of  61  days  contains  62  tithis,  so  one  tithi 
is  omitted  after  61  civil  days.  From  this  consideration 
the  number  of  civil  days  per  month  can  be  obtained 
and  will  be  shown  in  the  table  below.  The  Vedahga 
Jyotiqa  people  regularly  counted  a  tithi  to  a  day,  but 
after  61  days  one  tithi  was  omitted. 

As  regards  nak$atras,  their  number  is  1 809  in  1830 
civil  days,  the  difference  being  21.  So  87^  days  were 
equivalent  to  86^  nak$atrds.  They  counted  a  nakqatra 
to  a  day  successively,  but  after  every  87  days  (actually 
87$-  days),  one  nakqatra  was  repeated  for  two  days. 

The  five  different  years  of  the  period  had 
distinctive  names,  vix.,  (1)  Samvatsara,  (2)  Parivatsara, 
(3)  Idavatsara,  (4)  Anuvatsara,  and  (5)  Idvatsara. 

The  plan  of  the  five  yearly  calendar  is  shown 
below  : 

Table  12. 

Number  of  days  in  each  month  of  the  Vedanga 
Jyotisa  Calendar 

Safnvat-  Parivat -  Idavat-  Anuvat-  Idvat- 


sara 

sara 

sara 

sara 

sara 

Magha 

30 

29 

29 

29 

29 

Phalguna 

30 

30 

30 

30 

30 

Gaitra 

29 

29 

29 

29 

29 

Vaisakha 

30 

30 

30 

30 

30 

JyaiB^ha 

29 

29 

29 

29 

•  29 

Agadha 

30 

30 

30 

30 

30 

Havana  (adhika) 

— 

— 

29 

— 

_ 

Havana 

29 

29 

30 

29 

29 

Bhadrapada 

30 

30 

30 

30 

30 

Asvina 

29 

29 

29 

29 

29 

Kartika 

30 

30 

30 

30 

30 

Margasirga 

29 

29 

29 

29 

29 

Pauga 

30 

30 

30 

30 

30 

Magha  ( adhika ) 

— 

— 

— 

— 

29  or  30 

Total  No.  of 

355 

354 

384 

354 

383 

days  in  the  year  or  384 

As  already  shown,  the  actual  length  of  62  lunar 
months  is  1830.8965  days,  while  there  are  1830  civil 
days  in  the  five  ye&i%  period.  It  is  therefore  very 
likely  that  one  civil  day  was  added  to  the  period 
when  necessary  to  make  it  conform  to  the  phases  of 
the  moon  which  were  regularly  observed.  This 
additional  day  was  no  doubt  placed  at  the  end  of  the 


period,  and  when  it  was  added  the  last  month  adhika 
M&gha  contained  30  days  instead  of  29  days  which  was 
otherwise  its  due. 

The  ratio  |  for  the  duration  of  the  longest  day  to 
that  of  the  shortest  night  given,  in  the  Vedahga  Jyotiqa 
was  first  noted  by  Dr.  Thibaut.  Latex  the  sange  ratio 
was  found  by  Father  Kugler  from  Babylonian  cunei¬ 
form  records  of  the  Seleucidean  period.  The  rqtio  is 
characteristic  of  a  latitude  of  35°  N,  which  is  nearly 
that  of  Babylon  (for  Babylon  =  32°  40'N).  Hence  it 
has  been  inferred  that  the  Vedahga  Jt/ofi$a-astronomers 
got  this  ratio  from  Seleucidean  Babylon.  But  it  may 
be  pointed  out  that  the  Vedic  life  centred  round 
North-Western  India,  from  the  Sarasvatl  valley 
(Kurukjetra  0=29°  5S')  to  Gandhar  (0=31°  32’N). 
The  ratios  of  the  duration  of  daylight  to  night  on  the 
summer-solstice  day  for  different  latitudes  are  as 
follows  : 

Table  13. 


Longest  day  and  shortest  night 


(Calculated 

with  obliquity  of  ecliptic  as  23° 

51'  which  is 

for  1300  B.  C. 
same.) 

The  results 

for  500  B.  C.  are  also  almost  the 

Latitude 

Longest  day 

Shortest  night 

Ratio 

30°  N 

13h  58m 

10"  2m 

1.89 

31°  N 

14  3 

9  57 

1.41 

31°  32'  N 

14  6 

9  54 

1.42 

32°  N 

14  8 

9  52 

1.43 

32°40'  N 

14  12 

9  48 

1.45 

33°  N 

14  14 

9  46 

1.46 

34°  N 

14  19 

9  41 

1.48 

35°  N 

14  24 

9  36 

1.50 

It  is  seen  from  the  above  table,  that  even  at  the 
latitude  of  Babylon,  the  ratio  is  not  1.50  but  1.45.  At 
Gandhar,  it  is  1.42.  The  difference  is  not  very  large. 
But  there  is  another  factor  to  which  attention -must 
be  drawn. 

Both  Babylonians  and  Indians  measured  subdivisions 
of  the  day  by  means  of  some  kind  of  Clepsydra.  A 
description  of  the  Clepsydra  used  by  Indians  during 
the  Ved&hga  Jyotiqa-penod  will  be  found  in  S.B.  Dlk$it’s 
Bh&ratiya  Jyoti&dstra  (Sec.  II,  Chap.  I).  But  the  day- 
length  must  have  been  measured  from  the  observed 
time  of  sunrise  to  the  observed  time  of  sunset.  This  is 
somewhat  larger  than  the  astronomical  time  of  sunrise 
on  account  of  refraction.  Assuming  that  the  effect  of 
refraction  is  to  elevate  a  celestial  body  near  the  horizon 
by  about  35',  and  the  sun’s  semi-diameter  is  about  16', 
the  sun’s  upper  limb  appears  on  the  horizon  at  a  place 
on  32°  latitude,  about  4*  minutes  before  the' centre  of 
the  sun  is  due  on  the  horizon.  For  the  same  reason, 
the  sunset  takes  place  4*  minutes  after  the  astronomical 


226 


REPORT  OP  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


calculated  sunset.  So  the  apparent  length  of  the  day 
is  increased  by  2  x  4$  min.  or  by  9  minutes.  Therefore 
for  the  latitude  of  Babylon  we  have  the  length  of 
maximum  day-light  14h  12“  +  9m  =  14h  21m,  and  the 
night  is  9h  39m.  The  ratio  is  now  1.49.  Taking  the 
effect  of  refraction  into  consideration  the  ratio  for 
GandhSr  also  becomes  1.46,  which  is  not  much 
different  from  1.50  as  for  Babylon.  So  it  is  not 
necessary  to  assume  that  the  ratio  was  obtained  from 
Babylonian  sources. 

Elfect  of  Precession 

The  Veddiiga  Jyoti^a  was  prevalent  for  a  long  time 
over  India,  for  over  1300  years  (1000  B.C.  to  300  A.D.). 
Hence  it  is  likely  that  the  subsequent  astronomers 
noticed  the  gradual  shift  of  the  solstitial  colure  in  the 
lunar  zodiac.  In  fact,  several  references  are  found  to 
this  effect.  Garga,  an  astronomer  whose  name  is 
found  in  the  Mahdbharata,  where  he  is  described  as 
having  an  astronomical  school  at  a  place  called 
Gargasrota  in  the  Sarasvatl  basin,  is  the  reputed  author 
of  a  pre-Siddhantic  calendaric  treatise  called  Qarga 
Safnhitd.  He  notes  : 

K 

Yada  nivartate’praptab  sravigt-hamuttarayape 

Aslesam  daksipe’praptab  tada  vindyanmabad  bhayam. 

Translation :  When  at  the  time  of  Uttardyaqa 
the  sun  is  found  turning  (north)  without  reaching  the 
Sravi^kds;  and  (at  the  time  of  Dakyinayana)  turning 
(south)  without  reaching  the  Asle$d,  it  should  be 
taken  to  indicate  a  period  of  calamity. 

:It  shows  that  at  the  time  of  Garga  the  W.S.  did 
no  longer  occur  in  &ravi$\ha,  neither  the  S.S.  occurred 
in  the  Asle$a  division.  At  the  time  of  Veddiiga  Jyoti&z 
the  two  solstices  were  marked  by  the  starting  point  of 
&ravigftha  and  the  middle  point  of  Mle$d  respectively. 
Garga  therefore  observed  that  the  solstices  were  reced¬ 
ing  back  over  the  lunar  calendar,  and  had  shifted  at 
least  by  half  a  «ak$afra-division  from  the  middle  of 
ASlegd.  His  observations  are  therefore  at  least  480 
years  later  than  those  of  the  Veddiiga  Jyotiqa. 

In  tb z  Mahdbhdrata  we  get  the  following  verse  : 

Asvamedha,  Chap.  44,2 

Ahab  purvarn  tatorafcrirmasab  sukl&dayal.i  ami-tab 

i^ravapadlm  fkijani  ptavab  siairadayab 

Translation  ;  Day  comes  first  and  then  the  night  ; 
months-';  are  known  to  commence  with  the  bright 
ha)f,  the  nakqatias  with  bravaiga,  and  the  seasons 
with  &Uira, 

Here  the  asterism  faravaiga  is  described  as  the  one 
where  the  winter  solstice  takes  place.  Sramoa  is 
ust  preceding  &ravi${ha  and  the  solstices  take  about 
960  years  to  retrograde  through  one  nafaaira  division. 


We  get  from  this  the  time  of  composition  of  the- 
Mahdbhdrata  as  about  45CT  B.C.  or  sometime  earlier. 

VarShamihira  also  notes  that  the  winter  solstice 
no  longer  took  place  at  Dhani$\hd. 

Paflca  Siddhdntika,  III,  21 

AsleijardhSdasit  yada  nivfttib  kilognakiranasya 
Yuktamayanam  tadasit  sampratamayanam 

punarvasutab. 

Translation  :  When  the  return  of  the  sun  towards 
the  south  (  i.e.,  the  summer  solstice  )  took  place  from 
the  middle  of  Asleyd,  the  ayana  was  right  :  at  the 
present  time  ayana  begins  from  Punarvasu. 

In  his  Bfhat  Safnhitd,  an  astrological  treatise,  he. 
records  : 

Brhat  Safnhitd ,  III,  1 

Aslegardhatdakjipam  uttaramayaijam  raverdhani^badyam 
Nunam  kadacidasifc  yenokfcarii  purvasaatraju. 

Translation  :  The  beginning  of  the  southern  motion 
when  the  sun  has  passed  half  of  Attend  and  the  begin- 
ning  of  the  northern  motion  when  the  sun  has  passed 
the  beginning  of  Dhani^ha,  must  have  taken  place 
at  some  epoch  ;  for  these  are  recorded  in  old  treatises. 

From  the  time  of  Veddiiga  Jyotisa  to  Varahamihira’s 
time  the  summer  solstice  moved  through  more  than  1| 
nakgairas  (  §  of  AJlegd  +  Pu$ya  )  which  indicated  a  lapse 
of  more  than  1500  years  from  the  time  of  Veddiiga 
Jyotisa. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  the  Hindu  astronomers  observed 
the  shifting  of  the  cardinal  points  due  to  precession 
of  the  equinoxes  ;  but  as  they  had  not  developed  the 
sense  of  era,  they  were  unable  to  find  out  the  time- 
interval  between  different  records,  and  obtain  a  rate 
for  precession,  as  was  done  by  Hipparchos.  Their 
observations  were  also  crude,  as  they  used  only  the 
lunar  zodiac.  The  shifting  of  the  solstitial  colures, 
remained  to  them  an  unsolved  mystery. 

5.5  CRITICAL  REVIEW  OF  THE  INSCRIPTIONAL 
RECORDS  ABOUT  CALENDAR 

In  this  chapter.  We  are  undertaking  a  critical 
review  of  the  references  to  the  calendar  in  ancient 
inscriptions,  because,  from  the  point  of  view  of 
accurate  history,  inscriptional  records  are  far  more 
valuable  than  any  references  in  ancient  scriptures  or 
classics,  as  they  are  contemporary  documents,  which 
have  remained  unaltered  since  the  framers  left  them*. 

*  Sometimes  iuscriptions  and  copper  plate  records  have  been 
found  to  have  been  forged  at  a  latter  date  but  such  instances  are 
rare  and  can  not  escape  detection  by  an  experienced  archaeologist. 


INDIAN  CALENDAR 


227 


References  in  ancient  scriptures',  poems,  epics  and 
other  literatures  are,  on  the  other  hand,  very  often 
liable  to  alterations,  interpolations  and  errors  in  the 
hands  of  latter-day  copyists  and  are,  therefore,  less 
trust-worthy. 

The  oldest  inscriptional  records  bearing  a  date 
(  barring  those  belonging  to  the  Indus-valley  period 
which  have  not  been  deciphered  )  belong  to  the  reign 
of  the  Emperor  Asoka  (  273-236  B.C. ).  From  these, 
we  can  make  fairly  accurate  deductions  regarding  the 
calendar  then  in  use. 

We  take  the  Fifth  Pillar  Edict,  Rampurva  version 
found  at  the  Champaraij.  district,  Bihar.  The 
language  is  Asokan  Prakrt,  the  script  is  the  oldest 
form  of  BrahmI.  (  Sircar  pp.  62-63  ) 

Fifth  Pillar  Edict — Rdmpurvd  Version 

(1)  Saduvisati^va^sdbhisitena^advifnsati-varsdbhisi- 

ktena) — ‘After  twenty-six  years  had  elapsed 
since  coronation’. 

(2)  Ttsu  cafMfti7nS[st]$u  tisyafn  pufnnamasiyafn  tini- 

divasani  cavudasafn  pabinatfasafn  pa\ipadafn . 

(  Tisfsu  cdlurmasi$u  tisyayafn  purnamasyafn, 

trisu  divasesu -caturda&e  paftcadase  pratipadi . 

‘On  the  three  caturmasi  days,  on  the  ti$ya  full 

moon  day,  on  the  14th,  15th  and  the  first 
day . 

(  On  these  and  some  other  days,  sale  of  fish  is 
forbidden). 

Again,  in  the  same  : 

(3)  A\hami-pakhaye  cavudasaye  pafnnadasaye 

tisaye  punavasune . (.4$  \ami-pak$e, 

catur-dasyain,  paflcadasyatn ,  tisyiyafn, 
punarvasau . )  ; 

‘On  the  eighth  pak$a ,  on  the  14th,  and  the 
15th  (  new  moon )  on  the  Tisya  and 

Punarvasu  Nak$atra  days . , 

(On  these  days,  he  forbids  the  castration  of 
bulls). 

From  these  passages,  we  .conclude  that  : 

1.  No  era  was  used,  but  regnal  years  (  number  of 

years  elapsed  since  the  king’s  coronation ) 
were  used  for  dating. 

2.  The  time-reckoning  was  by  seasons,  each  of 

8  pak$as.  The  seasons  are  : 

Orisma  (Sunjmer)  :  Comprising  Caitra,  Vaisdkha, 
Jyaistha,  A^fha. 

Far^S  (Rains)  :  Comprising^  /Sravarui,  Bhadra, 
Aivina,  Kartika. 

Hemanta  (Winter)  :  Comprising  Agrahayana, 
Pau$a,  Mdgha,  Phalguna. 


3.  The  months  are  not  mentioned  by  frame,  except 

in  one  case  whete  the  month  of  Mdgha  is 
mentioned.  They  are  pHrifimanta,  i.e.,  they 
started  after  full  moon  and  ended  in  full  moon. 
This  is  not  expressly  mentioned  but  can  be 
inferred  from  the  fact  that  the*T4th,  the  15th 
( Paficadait )  and  the  Pratipada ,  i.e.,  the  first 
tithi  are  enjoined  to  be  the  days  on  which 
certain  actions  are  forbidden.  These  must  be 
the  three  days  of  invisibility  of  the  moon,  the 
14th  being  before  new  moon,  the  15th  the 
new  moon,  and  the  first,  the  day  after  new 
moon,  which  were  observed  as  unsuitable  for 
many  particular  performances. 

4.  The  day  reckoning  was  by  the  tithi  (lunar  day), 

but  the  word  tithi  is  probably  not  to  be  taken 
in  the  sense  of  the  present  Siddhantic  tithi, 
but  in  the  sense  of  the  VedSnga  ]yoti§a 
tithi  or  the  old  BrShmaijic  tithi.  In  the  latter 
system,  a  tithi  was  counted  from  moon-set 
to  moon-set  during  the  bright  half,  and  from 
moon-rise  to  moon-rise  during  the  dark-half. 
There  was  the  same  tithi  for  the  whole  day. 
Prof.  P.  C.  Sen  Gupta  has  discussed  this 
method  of  tithi  reckoning  (  see  p.  222  ). 

5.  Two  days  are  mentioned  by  the  lunar  asterisms 

Tisya  (s  Cancri),  and  Punarvasu  (.6  Oeminorum ). 
As  suggested  one  was  probably  his  birth 
nak$atra,  the  other  his  coronation  naksatra-. 
The  days  were  therefore  also  named  after  the 
naksatra.  This  system  is  found  in  vogue  in 
the  epic  Mahabharata,  e.g.,  in  the  following 
passage  : 

Balarama,  the  elder  brother  of  Krgija,  after  returning 
from  pilgrimage  on  the  eighteenth  day  of  the  battle 
states  : 

M.  Bh.,  &alya  Parva,  Ch.  34,  6 

Catvarimsadahanyadya  dve  ca  me  nihsrtasya  vai 
Pugyepa  samprayato’smi  Sravaue  punaragatalj. 

Translation  •  It  is  forty-two  days  since  I  left  the 
house.  I  started  on  the  Pu$ya  (day)  and  have  returned 
on  the  hravaya. 

6.  There'  is  no  mention  of  the  year-beginning. 
The  Tisya  Pnrnamdsi,  i.e.,  the  full-moon  day 
ending  the  lunar  month  of  Pau$a  is  marked 
out  particularly. 

It  appears  from  the  records  that  in  Asoka’s  time, 
the  principles  followed  in  framing  the  calendar  were 
those  given  in  the  Veddhga  Jyotisa.  No  era  was  used. 
From  the  inscriptions,  we  can  make  no  inference  about 
the  luni-solar  adjustment,  but  there,  is  no  doubt  that 
the  year  was  seasonal  as  given  in  the  inscription  of.  the 
SatavShanas  (see  next  page). 


226 


BEPOBT  OF  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


No  records  bearing  a  date  of  the  imperial  dynasties 
following  the  Mauryas,  viz.,  the  Sungas,  and  Kaqvas 
(186  B-C.-45  A.D.)  are  known.  But  the  next  imperial 
.dynasty,  the  SstavShanas  have  left  plenty  of  dated 
records.  In  these,  the  same  system  of  date-recording 
•by  regnal  years,  the  seasons,  the  pak$as,  and  tithis  are 
found.  There  are  8  pakqas  in  a  season  of  four  months, 
.and  they  were  serially  numbered  from  1  to  8.  The 
odd  ones  were  Kf^na  pak$as,  the  even  ones  &ukla 
/pak$as. 

Some  examples  are  given  below  : 

(1)  Nasik  Inscription  of  the  SatavShana  Emperor, 
Gautamlputra  Sri  Satakariji  (Sircar,  pp.  192-93). 

Dais,  pa(ikd  Savachare  10+8  vasapakhe  2  divase  1 
{daitS  pa\\ika  Safnvatsare  a$\adase  18  Var$apak$e 
divtiye  2  divase  prathame  1). 

i.e.  the  inscription  was  recorded  in  the  *  eighteenth 
year  elapsed  since  the  coronation  on  the  first  day 
-of  the  second  Pakga  of  the  Far? S  season,  i.e.,  in  the 
lunar  month  of  &ravay,a,  on  the  first  day  after  new 
moon  ( &ukla  pak$a). 

There  are  other  Satavahana  inscriptions  similarly 
dated  as  summarized  in  tjhe  table  below  : 

Table  14. 

Table  of  Inscriptions  of  Satavahana  Kings, 
showing  date-recording. 

Lttders 


1024 

Bano  Gotamiputasa  Sami-Siriyana- 

Satakapisa 

16-G 

1-5 

1100 

Bano  Vasifhipufcasa  Sami-Siri-Pulumavisa 

7-G 

5-1 

1106 

B.  Y.  Siri-Pulumavisa 

24-H 

3-2 

1122 

B.  V.  Siri-Pulumayisa 

6:G 

5-6 

1123 

B.  V.  Siri-Pulumayisa 

19-G 

2-13 

112,4 

B.  V.  Siri-Pulumavisa 

19-G 

2-13 

22-G 

1-7 

1126 

E.  G.  Satakanisa 

24 -V 

4-5 

1146 

B.  G.  Sami  Siriyana  Satakanisa 

7-H 

1 

1147 

B.  V.  Sami  Siri-Pulumaisa 

2-H 

8 

90 

(Sircar  )-Siri-Pulumavisa 

8-H 

2-1 

R  means  ratio,  Y-Yasithiputasa,  G-Gotamiputasa. 

The  number  in  the  first  column  indicates  the  serial 
number  of  the  inscription  in  Ltiders’  list.  The  last 
column  contains  dates,  in  an  abridged  form  ;  e.g.,  in 
1123,  we  have  19,  G  2-13.  Here  T9'  is  the  regnal  year, 
G  denotes  Qrt?ma  or  summer  season,  '2’  following  G 
denotes  the  second  pak$a,  i.e.,  the  second  half  of  the 
month  of  CaitrafHeq^tituting  the  &ukla  pak$a,  and  the 
last  numeral  T3’  denotes  the  day.  But  it  is  not  clear 
whether  the  day  is  the  lunar  day,  i.e.,  the  tithi  or  the 
rsolar  day.  Even  if  it  be  the  tithi,  it  is  probably  not 
the'Siddhantic  tithi ,  but  the  old  Brahmanic  or  VedfiAga 
iithi. 


According  to  our  calculations,  the  date  of  Gautaml¬ 
putra  Satakarni  would  be  about  the  first  century  A.D. 
We  take  some  still  later  records. 

(2)  Raja  Virapurusadatta  of  Nsgarjunlkoqda  (Sircar, 

pp.  220-221) 

llafnftlo  Siri  Vlrapurisadatasa  Sava  6  va  pa  6  di  10 
(Raj  ft  ah  &ri  Virapurugadattasya  safnvatsare 
$a?the  6  var$apak$e  ?a?(Ae  6  divase  da&ame  10. 

On  the  sixth  year  of  King  Sri  Virapurusadatta  on 
the  6th  pakija  of  the  var$a  season,  on  the  tenth  day. 
The  sixth  of  var$a  pak$a  is  month  of  Asvina,  second  or 
light  half  ( Sukla  pak$a). 

It  is  obvious  from  the  above  inscriptional  evidences, 
that  continuous  era-recording  was  not  used  by  Indian 
dynasts  up  to  the  time  of  the  Satav3hanas>  and  no 
ancient  books,  not  even  the  Mahabharata  mentions 
an  era. 

As  no  era  is  mentioned,  it  has  been  difficult  to  work 
out  a  chronology  of  the  early  Indian  dynast#  including 
the  SstavShanas. 

The  Coming  of  the  Era  to  India 

,  As  we  have  seen  in  §  3.5,  the  era  reckoning  had  been 
in  use  in  Babylon  since  747  B.C.,  and  the  Seleucidean 
era  which  marked  the  accession  to  power  of  Seleucus 
at  Babylon  in  312  B.C.,  was  widely  current  in  the 
whole  of  the  Middle  East,  both  by  the  royalty  and 
the  public. 

But  though  as  Asoka’s  Girnar  inscription  says  that 
he  was  in  diplomatic  correspondence  with  five  Greek 
kings  of  the  West,  including  Antiochus  I  and  II  of 
Babylon,  and  the  Ptolemy  of  Egypt,  and  sent  Buddhist 
missionaries  to  these  countries,  it  is  .clear  from  his 
records  that  he  continued  to  use  the  purely  Indian 
methods  of  date-recording  based  on  the  Vedanga-  Jyoii$a. 
There  is  not  the  slightest  indication  that  any  of  the 
Indian  imperial  dynasties  which  followed  the  Mauryas, 
viz.,  the  Sungas  and  Kaijvas  (186  B.C.-45  A.D.),  the 
SstavShanas  (  100  A.D.)  allowed  themselves  to  be 
influenced  by  the  Graeco-Chaldean  luni-solar  calendar 
which  was  then  in  vogue  in  the  Near  East. 

From  about  180  B.C.,  North-Western  India  having 
Taxila  as  capital  passed  under  the  Bactrian  Greeks. 

It  is  rather  strange  that  though  we  have  plenty  of 
coins  of  the  Bactrian  Greeks  who  ruled  in  Afghanistan 
and  N.W.  India  between  160  B.C.,  and  50  B.C.,  from 
which  their  names  have  been  recovered,  and  some 
kind  of  chronology  has  been  worked  out,  not  a  single 
record  has  yet  been  discovered  which  bears  a  date, 
except  two  doubtful  ones.  One  is  the  coin  of  a 
certain  Plato,  found  in  the  Kabul  valley,  which  bears 
certain  symbols  which  have  been  interpreted  as  147 
of  the  Seleucidean  era,  i,e.,  165  B.C.,  Plato  has  been 


INDIAN  CALENDAR 


229 


identified  by  Tam  to  be  a  brother  of  Eucratidas, 
founder  of  the  second  Greek  ruling  house  (175  B.C> 
139  B.C.)  in  Bactria.  But  the  interpretation  is 
doubtful. 

The  second  one  is  an  inscription  of  the  time  of 
king  Menander,  the  great  king  of  the  Euthydemid 
house  who  ruled  over  the  Punjab,  Sind  and  Rajputana 
about  150  B.C.,  on  the  Shinkot  Steatite  Casket,  the 
only  one  of  the  Greek  kings  who  has  found  a 
permanent  place  in  Indian  literature  in  the  celebrated 
Milinda  Paftho,  a  philosophical  treatise  meaning 
questions  of  king  Menander.  The  inscription  referred 
to  mentions  regnal  year  5,  the  Indian  month  of 
Vaisdkha,  and  the  twenty-fifth  day.  Thus  the  date¬ 
recording  is  Indian,  but  slightly  different  from  the 
system  used  in  A^okan  or  Satavahana  inscriptions 
because  the  pakga  is  omitted. 

Our  studies  given  in  §  3'3,  shows  that  a  mathe¬ 
matically  accurate  luni-solar  calendar,  based  on 
astronomical  knowledge,  was  first  evolved  in  Seleucid 
Babylon  between  300  B.C.  to  200  B.C.  by  Chaldean 
astronomers.  The  features  of  this  calendar  were  : 

(a)  The  use  of  .the  Seleucidean  era  for  numbering 
years  in  place  of  the  regnal  years. 

(b)  The  beginning  of  the  year  with  the  lunar  month 
of  Nisan  which  was  to  start  on  a  date  not  later  than 
a  month  of  the  vernal  eqxinox. 

(This  corresponds  to  the  Indian  month  of  Vaikakha 
later  defined  in  Siddhantic  calendars). 

(c)  There  was  an  alternative  method  of  starting  with 
the  Greek  month  of  Dios  which  was  to  begin  on  a 
date  not  later  than  a  month  of  the  autumnal  equinox. 

(This  corresponds  to  the  Indian  month  of  Ifarlika, 
as  later  defined  in  Siddhantic  calendars). 

(d)  Luni-solar  adjustment  was  done  by  the  nineteen- 
year  cycle  ( vide  §  3’2  — 3  4). 

This  system  of  date-recording  spread  far  and  wide 
in  the  Near  East  and  was  adopted  by  other  ruling 
dynasties,  viz.,  the  Parthians,  who  however  used  an  era 
starting  from. 248  B.C.  They  used  Macedonian  months 
without  alteration. 

.  It  can  now  be  shown  that  this  system  penetrated 
gradually  into  India. 

Era  or  eras  of  unknown  origin  began  to  be 
mentioned  in  certain  inscriptions  found  in  the  North- 
Western  Punjab  %pd  the  Kabul  valley  about  the  first 
century  B.C.  Some  of^ftem  mention  kings  belonging  to 
the  Saka  tribes  who  ruled  Ariana  (west  and  southern 
Afghanistan  comprising  the  Herat  regions-Area),  the 
Kandahar  regions  (Arachosia),  and  Gandhara  (N.W. 
Punjab)  between  the  second  century  B.C.  and  the  first 


century  A.D:  The  inscriptions  are  mostly  in  Kharoj^hl 
and  later  ones  found  on  Indian  soil  are  in  BrahmI.  The 
Kharojthl  inscriptions  are  collected  by  Dr.Sten  Konow 
in  his  monumental  work  Corpus  Inscriptionum 
Indicarum,  Vol.  II.,  Part  I.,  and  are  reproduced  below 
in  Groups  A  and  B. 

Group  A  is  identical  with  Konow’s  A  (with  the 
omission  of  Nos.  20-23)  and  contains  dates  from  year 
58  to  200.  Group  B,  identica  with  Konow's  B-Group, 
contains  the  inscriptions  of  Ku§aqa  period  bearing 
dates  of  years  between  3C0  and  400. 

GROUP  A 

1.  Maira  :  [sato  58]- 

2.  Sahdaur  A:  ra  [ja]  no  Damijadasa  saka-sa.  . . 

.  .60"]. 

(Reading  uncertain.) 

3.  Sahdaur  B  :  ^maharayasa  ?]  Ayasasatn... 

4.  Mansehra  :  ..adha$a\h&.... 

5.  Fatehjang  :  sain  68  Prothavatasa  masasa  divase 

$o4ase  16. 

6.  Taxila  copper-plate  :  safnratkaraye  a[hasatatimae 

78  maharayasa  mahaintasa  Mogasa  Panemasa 
masasa  divase  parnrame  5  etaye  purvaye. 

7.  Mucai  :  va$e  ekasitimaye  8 1 . 

8.  Kala  Sang  :  [sa/ri  100~\.  Reading  uncertain. 

9.  Mount  Banj  :  sainvatkaraye  102. 

10.  Takht-i-Bahi  :  maharayasa  Quduvharasa  va$a 

26  satnvatsarae  tikatimae  103  Vesakhasa 
masasa  divase  [pra^ha]  me  [di  1  atra  pu?ta\ 
pakie. 

11.  Paja  :  sainvatkaraye  ekadasa  [sa*]  timaye  111 

Sravaipasa  masasa  di  [m»]  se  pafn[_cada]se  15. 

12-  Kaldarra  :  m?a  113  Sravanasa  20. 

13.  Marguz :  [ra?e  Z*]Z“. 

14.  Panjtar  :  satn  122  feravanasa  masasa  di  pradhame 

1  maharayasa  Ou^anma  rajami. 

15.  Taxila  silver  scroll  :  sa  136  ayasa  A$adasa 

masasa  divase  15  ika  divase. .  maharajasa 
rajatirajasa  devaputrasa  Khuqariasa  aroga- 
dak$ii}ae. 

16.  Pegawar  Museum,  No.  20  :  satn  168  Jethamase 

divase  pafneadake. 

17.  Khalatse  :  satn  187  maharajasa  Uvimaka  [vthi] 

sasa. 

18.  Taxila  silver  vase  :  ka  191  maharaja  \JAmita 

Manigulasa  putrasa *~\Jihonikasa  Cukhsasa 
kqatrapasa. 

19.  Dewai  :  satn  200  Vekakhasa  masasa  divase 

a\hame  8  itra  kharyisa. 


230 


EEPORT  OF  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


The  Method  of  Date  Recording 

A  record  fully  dated  in  Group  A  gives  : 

The  year  of  the  era  in  figures  and  words  ;  though 
it  does  not  give  any  particular  designation  to  the  era. 

The  month,  mostly  in  Sanskrit  ;  the  day,  by  its 
ordinal  number,  e.g.,  No.  11,  which  means  in  the  year 
111  on  the  15th  day  of  the  month  of  Sravaya. 

The  months  are  all  in  Sanskrit,  except  in  No.  6,  in 
which. the  month  is  in  Greek  {Panemos=  Agasha).  No. 
6  alone  of  this  group  contains  the  rather  mysterious 
phrase  ‘Etaye  purvaye’  which  means,  'before  these’. 
This  phrase,  the  meaning  of  which  is  not  clear,  occurs 
in  Ku§aga  (Group  B)  and  even  in  Gupta  inscriptions. 

This  method  of  dating  is  quite  different  from  that 
of  the  contemporary  Indian  dynasts,  vix.,  the 
SatavShanas,  which  mentioned  regnal  years,  the  season, 
the  pakva,  and  then  probably  the  old  tithi  or  the  lunar 
day.  But  it  agrees  with  the  method  followed  in 
contemporary  Parthia,  which  mentions  the  year 
usually  in  the  Seleucidean  era,  rarely  in  the  Arsacid 
era,  the  name  of  the  month  in  Greek,  and  the  ordinal 
number  of  the  day,  which  ranges  from  1  to  30  (see 
Debevoise,  1938).  From  No.  10,  it  appears  that 
whenever  Indian  months  were  used  they  were 
PUrnimanta,  following  the  classical  Indian  custom. 

Date  of  records  of  Group  A 

None  of  the  inscriptions  of  Group  A  appear  to 
be  'Royal  Records’  but  some  contain  names  of  kings, 
e.g..  No.  6,  which  mentions  a  Maharaja,  Mahafnta  Moga, 
who  is  taken  to  be  identical  with  a  king  whose  coins 
have  been  iound  in  large  numbers  in  Gandhara.  He 
calls  himself  ‘Maues’  in  the  Greek  inscription  on  the 
obverse,  and  Moasa  (i.e.  of  Moa)  in  Kharosthl  on 

x.* 

the  reverse.  The  title  given  there  usually  is 
Maharajasa  Rajatirajasa  Mahatntasa.  It  is  held  that 
King  Moga  was  Saka  leader  who  starting  from  a  base 
in  Seistan  or  Arachosia,  invaded  Gandhara  through  the 
southern  route,  sailed  up  the  Indus,  and  ousted  the 
Greek  rulers  Archebius  from  Taxila,  Artemidorus 
from  Pu§kal3vatl  and  Telephos  from  KapsS  (Bachhofer, 
1936)  and  founded  a  large  empire  comprising  parts  of 
Afghanistan,  Gandhara  and  the  Punjab. 

He  is  generally  held  to  have  been  a  Saka,  but  some 
hold  iJwthout  sufficient  reason  that  he  was  a  Parthian. 
He  is  the  first^pf  .Indo-Scythian  kings  known  to 
numismatics.  He  wa^followed  by  other  Indo-Scythian 
kings  in  GSndhara,  who  are  known  from  wide  variety 
of  coins  issued,  viz.,  Azes  I,  Azilises  and  Azes  II. 
But -there  is  no  cleat  reference  to  them  in  these  ins¬ 
criptions  except  the  word  ' Ayasa ’  in  Nos.  10  and  15, 


which  is  supposed  to  stand  for  Azes.  But  this  has 
been  disputed. 

This  series  starts  with  the  year  58,  if  Cunningham’s 
reading  of  (1)  with  the  additional  reading  of  the  king’s 
name  ‘Moasa’  is  accepted.  But  even  if  we  reject  it, 
the  series  certainly  starts  with  the  year  68  in  No.  5, 
and  goes  up  to  136  at  fairly  small  intervals,  then  to 
168,  187,  191,  200  containing  names  of  rulers  known 
from  coins,  viz.,  besides  Maues  above  mentioned, 
Gondophernes  (103  =  20  B.C.),  some  Ku§aija  king  (122 
=  1  B.C.),  Devaputra  Ku§ai)a  (136  =  14  A.D.),  Maharaj- 
bhrata  Jehonika  (191=69  A.D.).  They  are  held  to  be 
dated  in  the  same  era,  which  is  usually  called' the  Old 
Saka  Era,  shortly  called  O.S.E.  But  up  to  this  time, 
there  has  been  no  unanimity  amongst  scholars  about 
the  starting  date  of  the  era  used  in  inscriptions 
grouped  under  A. 

We  now  take  the  second  group  of  inscriptions 
which  are  those  of  the  Ku§aijas,  who  ruled  in  North 
India  in  the  second  century  A.D. 

GROUP  B 

The  Ku§aija  Inscriptions  after  Kanijka  : 

24.  Kanijka  casket  :  sain  l  rm[  harayasa  ] 

Kaniqkasa. 

25.  Sui  Vihar  :  maharajasya  rajatirajasya  devapu- 

trasya  Kani$kasya  sainvatsare  ekadake  sain 
11  Daisi{fti)kasya  masadj  y  ]a  divase{  in) 
athavike  28  [  aya  ]  tra  divase. 

26.  Zeda  :  sain  11  A$adasa  masasa  di  20  Utara- 

phagune  ika  kquyami . murodasa 

marjhakasa  Kani$kasa  rajami. 

27.  Maijikiala  :  sain  18  Kartiyasa  majh  [  e  J  divase 

20  etra  puivae  maharajasa  Kane$kasa. 

28.  Box  lid  :  sain  18  masye  Arthamisiya  sastehi  10 

ik  [  e  ]  k$unatnmri. 

29.  Kurram  :  sain  20  masasa  Avadunakasa  di  20 

ik  [  e  ]  k§unainmi. 

30.  Pe$2war  Museum,  No.  21 :  maharajasa  [Taju$] 

kasa  sain  [24  Je^hasa  ?  ]  masasadi . ike 

k^unafnmi. 

31.  Hidda  :  sainvatkarae  a\haviinkatihi  28  masye 

Apelae  sasiehi  dakahi  10  ik[e]  k$unainmi. 

32.  Sakardarra  :  sain  40  P  [r  jo{havadasa  masasa 

divas[amij  vikami  di  20  atra  divasakale. 

33.  Ara  :  maharajasa  rajatirajasa  devaputrasa  kaisa- 

rasa  Vajhe$kaputrasa  Kaniqkasa  sainvatkarae 
ekacapar[i  '\ka[  i  ]  sain  41  Je\hasa  masasadi 
25  is  [c]  divasaksunami. 

34.  Wardak  :  sain  51  masy[  e  ]  Arthamisiya 

sastehi  15  imena  gadrigreya . maharaja 

rajatiraja  Bove$kasra  agrabhagrae. 


INDIAN.  CALENDAR 


35.  Uq4  :  safn  61  Cetrasa  mahasa  divase  a\hcmi 

di  8  iia  k$unami . Purva$a4e. 

36.  MamSne  Dheri  :  sain  89  Margasirasra  masi  5  ike 

k$unami. 

An  incomplete  date,  masasa  di  25,  is  further 
found  in  the  Kaniza  Dheri  inscription. 

The  second  group  Nos.  24-36  contains  Kharo§thl 
inscriptions  of  the  Ku§aija  kings  after  the  first  Kani§ka. 
These  and  Ku§ai)a  Brahml  inscriptions  mention  : 

Years  from  '1  to  98,  the  kings  Kani$ka  I  from 
1  to  24, 

Vajheska  from  24-28,  Kani§ka  II  of  the 
year  41, 

Huvi§ka  from  33-60, 

Vasudeva  from  62-98. 

The  King’s  name  and  the  titles  are  given  in  full, 
and  in  the  genitive.  The  era  is  generally  ascribed 
to  the  famous  Kanifka  as  we  have  a  recofd  of  his  first 
year. 

Their  method  of  date-recording  is  the  same  as  in 
Group  A,  viz.,  (  see  No.  25  )  the  year  of  the  era,  the 
month  name  in  Greek  or  Sanskrit,  the  ordinal  number 
of  the  day,  then,  the  phrase  equivalent  to  asyafn 
purvayafn  ( before  these  -),  but  in  these  inscriptions, 
it  is  expressed  in  the  form  ike  k$unami  or  its  variant, 
which  has  been  interpreted  by  Konow  as  equivalent 
of  asyafn  or  etasyafn  purvayafn  in  the  Khotani  Saka 
language  which  Konow  thinks  was  the  mother  tongue 
of  kings  of  the  Kanigka  group  and  which  they  use  in 
their  inscriptions.  In  fact  kings  of  this  group  use 
a  number  of  Khotani  Saka  words,  and  from  their  wide 
range  of  coins  are  known  to  have  put  in  a  medley 
of  Greek,  Iranian,  and  Indian  gods  including  Buddha 
on  their  coins,  but  the  names  of  the  gods  are  not  in 
their  original  Indian,  Iranian  or  Greek  form  but  'invari¬ 
ably  xin  the  form  used  in  the  Khotani  Saka  language. 

The  method  of  date-recording  followed  by  the 
Ku§3i)as,  in  spite  of  its  identity  with  that  of  Group  A 
shows  some  interesting  variations.  In  the  Kharo§thl 
inscriptions  of  the  Kugaqas,  the  months  are  mostly 
Greek,  less  so  in  Sanskrit  (  Caitra,  Vaisakha,  etc.  ). 
The  days  run  from  1  to  30  and  clearly  they  are  not 
tithis  but  solar  days.  When  we  turn  to  Brahml  inscrip¬ 
tions,  we  find  that  the  month  names  are  mostly 
seasonal  :  Orl$ma,  Var?a,  or  Hemanta  as  in  the  Satava- 
hana  records.  But  since  4  is  the  maximum  number 
attached.-  to  these,  and  the  day  numbers  run  from 
1  to  30,  the  number  after  the  season  denotes  a  month, 
not  a  pak$a  and  the  dajEfeare  solar.  Thus  G  4  denotes 
the  fourth  month  of  the  Ori^ma  season,  viz,  Agarfha, 
and  not  the  fourth  pakqa  as  was  the  case  with  the 
SatavShanas  which  would  be  the  second  half  of 
Vaikakha.  The  vak$a  is  given  up. 


231 

This  is  a  deviation  from  Satavahana  method  of 
date-recording  and  follows  closely  the  Graeco-Chal¬ 
dean  method.  Some  inscriptions  mention  Greek 
months  (  e.  g.  Oorpiaios  which  is  Asvina  or  Bhadra 
in  Sircar’s  No.  49,  p.  146  )  others  Indian  lunar  months 
(  e.  g.  kravana  in  No.  51  ),  but  their  number  is  small 
compared  with  the  seasonal  mode  of  recording  months. 
These  inscriptions  give  no  indication  as  to  whether 
the  month  is  Purnimanta  or  Amanta.  The  Indian 
months  are  Purnimanta. 

But  the  Zeda  inscription  of  year  11  ( No.  26  of 
Group  B)  mentions  that  the  nakgatra  was  TJttaraphalguni 
on  the  20th  of  A$a4ha,  and  (  35  )  mentions  that  in 
the  year  61,  the  nakqatra  on  the  8th  day  of  Caitra  was 
Purva$a4ha.  A  comparison  with  tables  of  nak^atras 
shows  that  the  months  ended  in  full  moon  {Purnimanta). 
As  purnimanta  months  were  unknown  outside  India, 
the  Kujaijas  must  have  yielded  to  Indian  influence 
and  adapted  their  original  time-reckonings  to  the 
Indian  custom;  at  least  in  their  use  of  Indian  months. 

Historians  and  chronologists  now  almost  unani¬ 
mously  hold  that  all  these  inscriptions  of  Group  B  are 
dated  in  the  same  era  which  is  sometimes  called  the 
Ku?aija  era,  which  was  founded  by  King  Kani§ka. 
This  is  said  to  be  proved  by  the  fact  that  the  inscrip¬ 
tions  range  from  year  1,  and  we  have  phrases  as  in 
No.  25  lof  the  Maharaja  Rajadhiraja  Devaputra 
Kani$ka ,  in  the  year  11.  But  a  little  more  scrutiny 
shows  that  it  is  only  a  conventional  phraseology,  used 
in  almost  all  Ku§3ija  inscriptions,  for  even  in  as  late 
as  an  inscription  of  year  98  of  this  group,  we  read  'of 
the  Maharaja  Vasudeva  in  the  year  98’.  It  is  therefore 
by  no  means  clear  that  such  phrases  can  be  interpreted 
to  mean  that  Kanigka  started  an  entirely  new  era. 
In  fact,  from  Kanijka’s  profuse  use  of  Greek  months 
and  Greek  gods,  in  his  inscriptions  and  coins, 
Cunningham  was  led  to  the  belief  that  Kani$ka  dated 
his  inscriptions  in  the  Seleucidean  era,  with  hundreds 
omitted,  so  that  year  1  of  Kanijka,  is  the  year  -401 
of  S.  E.  and  year  90  of  the  Christian  era. 

But  it’  has  been  known  for  some  time  that  the 
Ku?5qa  empire  did  not  stop  with  that  Vasudeva  who 
comes  after  Huvi$ka.  Dr.  L.  Bachhofer  (1936)  has 
proved  from  numismatics  the  existence  of  : 

Kani?ka  III,  reigning  apparently  after  Vasudeva  I, 

Vasudeva  II,  reigning  after  Kani§ka  III. 

The  kings  appear  to  have  retained  full  control  of 
the  whole  of  modern  Afghanistan  including  Bactria 
which  appears  to  have  been  the  home  land  of  the 
Ku§aijas  and  some  parts  of  the  Punjab,  right  tip  to 
Mathura. 

There  is  yet.no  proof  for  or  against  , the  point  that 
they  retained  the  eastern  parts,  after  year  98  of  Ku§5ija 


REPORT  OE  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


232 

era.  Herzfeld  had  established  that  .  jVisudeva  II, 
who  appears  to  have  come  after  Kani$ka  III  about 
210  A.D.,  was  deprived  of  Bactria  by  Ardeshir  I,  the 
founder  of  the  Sasanid  dynasty  of  Persia.  The 
Sasanids  converted  Bactria  into  a  royal -.province  under 
the  charge  of  the  crown  prince,  who  struck  coins 
closely  imitating  those  of  the  KusSijas.  Vasudeva  II 
is  also  mentioned  in  the  Armenian  records  of  Moise  of 
Khorene,  a  Jewish  scholar,  under  the  name  Vehsadjan, 
as  an  Indian  king  who  tried  to  form  a  league  with 
Armenia  and  other  older  powers  against  the  rising 
imperialism  of  Ardeshir.  Vasudeva  II  is  also  thought 
to  have  sent  an  embassy  to  China  about  230  A.D  *. 

The  second  Sassanian  king  Shapur  I,  claims  to  have 
conquered  sometime  after  240  A.D.  'PSKVR',  which  has 
been  identified  with  Purusapura  or  Peshawar,  the 
capital  of  the  Kusaqas.  This  has  also  been  .  confirmed 
by  the  French  excavations  at  Begram  (Kapi£l)  in 
Afghanistan,  which  was  destroyed  by  Shapur  between 
242  and  250  A.D.  But  this  probably  was  not  a 
permanent  occupation  but  a  raid,  as  a  Ku§aqa  king 
or  Shah  is  mentioned  in 'the  Paikuli  inscription  of  the 
Sasanid  king  Narseh  (293-302  A.D.). 

Kushana  Method  ot  Date-recording  In  India  : 

It  appears  rather  strange  that  the  Ku?aija  way  of 
date-recording  should  suddenly  come  to  a  dead  stop 
on  Indian  soil  with  the  year  98  of  Vasudeva  I,  and  no 
records  containing  a  year  number  exceeding  100  should 
be  found  on  Ihdian  soil. 

The  mystery  appears  now  to  have  been  successfully 
solved  by  Mrs.  Van  Lohuizen  de  Leeuw  in  her  book 
The  Scythian  Period  (pub.  1949).  She  has  proved  that 
several  Btahml  inscriptions  in  the  Mathura  region  bear 
dates  from  years  5  to  57  in  which,  following  an  old 
Indian  practice,  the  figure  for  hundred  hqs  been 
omitted.  Thus  ‘5’  stands  for  105,  ‘14’  stands  for  114 
of  the  Ku§aqa  era.  The  following  example  will  suffice 
(vide  pp.  242-43  of  The  Scythian  Period ). 

Cne  and  the  same  person  Arya  Vasula,  female 
pupil  of  Arya  Sapgamika,  holding  the  important 
position  of  a  religious  preacher  in  the  Jaina  community, 
is  mentioned  in  two  Brahml  inscriptions  (No.  24  and 
No.  70  of  Lliders)  bearing  the  year  designations  of  15 
and  86  respectively,  the  date-recording  being  in  the 
typical  Ku$3i}a  style.  The  palaeographical  evidence 
also  shows  that  the  inscriptions  were  recorded  in  the 
Ku$aqa  age,  thodgk-tfee  name  of  the  reigning  monarch 

*  Qhirshman  thought  that  the  Vasudeva  Kujaira  of  these 
references  is  Vlsudeva  I,  whose  last  reference  is  year  98.  He  equated 
year  98  of  Kanaka’s  era  to  year  242-250  A.D.,  and  arrived  at  the 
•  date  144  to  152  A.D.  for  the  initial  year  of  the  Kanaka  era.  But  the 
equation  of  this  Visudeva  with  VSsudeva  I  is  certainly  wrong.  This 
must  be  Vfisudeva  II,  or  may  be  a  still  later  Vftsndeva. 


is  not  mentioned.  Now  it  is  clearly  impossible  that 
the  same  person  would  occupy  such  an  important 
position  from  the  year  15  to  86,  a  period  of  71  years. 
L.  de  Leeuw  therefore  suggests  that  while  86  is  the 
usual  Kusaqa  year  (reckoning  from  year  1,  of  Kaniska), 
‘15’  is  really  with  hundred  omitted  and  represents, 
actually  the  year  115  of  Kaniska,  i.e.,  dates  of  the  two 
inscriptions  differ  by  115  —  86  =  29  years,  which  is  much 
more  plausible.  In  other  words,  after  the  year  100  of 
the  Kaniska  era  was  passed,  hundreds  were  dropped 
in  inscriptions  found  near  about  Mathura. 

The  author  has  sustained  her  ground  by  numerous 
other  illustrations,  and  there  seems  to  be  no  doubt 
that  this  is  a  brilliant  suggestion  and  it  can  be  taken 
as  proved  that  in  numbering  years  of  an  era,  hundreds 
were  omitted  in  certain  parts  of  the  Kusaija  dominion 
in  the  second  century  of  the  Kani§ka  era.  L.  de 
Leeuw  has  found  such  dates  in  no  less  than  7  instances 
bearing  years  5,  12,  15,  22,  35,  50,  57  in  which 
apparently  103  has  been  omitted,  so  that  57  really 
stands  for  157,  and  if  we  take  the  Kani§ka  era  to  have 
started  from  78  A.D.,  the  date  of  the  last  one  is  A.D. 
235  =  (157 +  78).  Probably  the  name  of  the  reigning 
king  was  not  mentioned,  as  he  had  either  lost 
control  over  these  regions,  or  as  the  inscriptions  were 
religious,  it  was  not  considered  necessary.  The  second 
alternative  appears  to  be  more  correct. 

This  is  supported  by  the  inscription  on  an  image 
discovered  by  Dayaram  Sahni  in  Mathura  in  1927. 
It  mentions  M&haraja  Devaputra  Kaniska.  But  on 
palaeographic  grounds,  he  can  neither  be  Kaniska  I 
(1-24)  nor  Kaniska  II  (41),  but  a  later  Kani§ka,  coming 
after  Vasudeva  I,  and  14  is  really,  year  114  of  the 
Kaniska  era.  We  may  identify  him  with  Kaniska 
III  of  Bachhofer. 

So  we  come  to  this  conclusion  : 

The  records  of  Kusaija  kings,  after  Kaniska  I 
range  from  year  1  to  98.  In  the  second  century  of 
-the  Kaniska  era,  hundreds  are  omitted  and  such 
records  have  been  found  up. to  year  157,  i.e.,  year  235 
of  the  Christian  era. 

This  raises  a  strong  presumption  that  Kaniska 
was  not  the  founder  of  the  era,  but  he  used  one 
already  in  vogue,  but  omitted  the  hundreds.  1  Thus 
year  1  of  Kaniska  is  really  year  1  plus  some  hundred, 
may  be  1,  2,  or  3.  L.  de  Leeuw  does  not  expressly 
suggest  this,  though  it  is  apparent  from  her  reasoning 
that  year  1  of  King  Kaniska  is  year  201  of  the  Old  &aka 
era*.  If  this  suggestion  be  correct,  since  the  old  Saka 
era  is  taken  to  have  started  in  123  B.C.  ( — 122  A.D.) 
instead  of  in  129  B.C.,  as  postulated  by  L.  de  Leeuw, 
Kaniska  started  reigning  in  (  201-123  )=78  A.D. 

*  The  suggestion  is  of  Prof.  M.  N.  Salts. 


INDIAN.  CALENDAR 


From  the  above  review  of  inscriptional  records  and 
contemporary  history,  the  following  story  has  been 
reconstructed. 

(1)  The  Saka  era  was  first  started  in  123  B.C. 
when  the  Sakas  coming  from  Central  Asia  due  to  the 
pressure  of  Htlnas  wrested  Bactria  from  ,  the  Parthian 
emperors  after  a  seven  years’  war.  The  leader  was 
probably  one  ‘Azes’,  and  therefore  the  era  was  also 
alternately  called  the  ‘Azes’  era.  This  Azes  is  not  to 
be  confounded  with  the  two  later  Azes  who  succeeded 
Maues  and  reigned  between  45  B.  C.  to  20  B.  C. 
Earlier  Sakas  used  Macedonian  months  and  Graeco- 
Chaldean  method  of  date  recording,  prevalent 
throughout  the  whole  of  Near  East.  In  Indian 
dominions,  Indian  months  which  were  equated  to 
Greek  months  were  used.  As  their  coins  show,  the 
ruling  class  had  adopted  Greek  culture. 

(2)  When  the  ■  Sakas  spread  from  ‘Sakasthan’,  i.e., 
modern  Afghanistan  into  contiguous  parts  of  India, 
they  began  to  be  influenced  by  Indian  culture.  During 
the  first  stage,  they  exclusively  used  Greek  in  their 
coins,  but  later  they  began  to  use  Kharo$thl  and 
Brahml  as  well.  The  coins  of  Maues  (80  B.C. — 45  B.C.), 
Azes  I,  Azilises,  'Azes  II  show  increasing  influence 
of  Indian  culture.  The  southern  Sakas  who  penetrated 
into  Saurashtra  and  Malwa  show  Indian  influence  to 
a  greater  degree. 

(3)  In  the  first  three  centuries,  they  (Maues  group, 

NahapSna  group  and  Kusaqas)  used  the  old  Saka  era 
omitting  hundreds,  and  using  a  method  of  date¬ 
recording  which  was  an  exact  copy  of  the  contem¬ 
porary  Graeco-Chaldean  system  prevalent  throughout 
the  Parthian  empire  (Macedonian  months,  and 
ordinal  number  of  days).  But  they  also  began  to  use 
Indian  months.  Whenever  they  did  it,  the  .month 
was  Purtiimania ,  as  was  the  custom  with  old  Hindu 
dynasts  (Mauryas  and  SatavShanas).  ^ 

(4)  The  classical  Saka  era  starting  from  78  A. D. 
is  nothing  but  the  old  Saka  era,  starting  from  123  B.C. 
with  200  omitted,  so  that  the  year  1  of  Kanigka  is 
year  201  of  the  Old  Saka  era. 

Saka  Era  in  the  South-West. 

Besides  the  earlier  Sakas  belonging  to  the  Maues 
group,  and  the  Ku?5i)as,  there  was  another  groupof  Saka 
kings,  who  penetrated  into  the  south-western  part  of 
India.  The  earliest  representative  of  this  group  was 
NahapSloa  and  his  son-in-law  U§avadata.  Their 
records  are  datechio.years  41  to  46  of  an  unknown  era. 
They  use  Indian  lunar)ijfcnths  and  days  (probably  tit  his). 
These  Sakas  ruled  in  Rajputana,  Malwa,  and  northern 
Maharastra  and  were  engaged  in  continuous  warfare 
with  the  Sstavahana  ruler  Gautamlputra  Satakarpi 
who  claim  to  have  destroyed  them  root  and  branch. 


233 

The  senior  author  has  shown  that  NahapSna  used 
the  old  Saka  era  with  one  hundred  omitted,  so  that 
the  year  46  of  NahapSna  was  the  year  146  of  the  old 
Saka  era  or  about  24  A.D. 

The  SatavShana  kings  Gautamlputra  Satakariji  and 
his  son  Vasifthlputra  Pulumavi,  whose  records  are 
found  dated  in  the  typical  Indian  fashion,  reigned 
according  to  his  hypothesis  from  about  40  A.D.  to  80 
A.D.  From  epigraphical  record,  NahapSna  is  at  least 
separated  by  about  100  years  from  the  next  group  of 
Saka  rulers,  viz.,  the  Sakas  of  Ujjain  belonging  to 
the  house  of  Cajtana. 

The  &aka  satraps  of  Ujjain. 

/ 

We  come  across  the  records  of  another  Saka  ruling 
family,  reigning  in  Ujjain. 

[Andau  (Cutch)  stone  inscriptions  of  the  time  of 
Cabana  and  Rudradaman,  Sircar,  p.  167], 

Raj  ft  a?/.  Castanasya  Jamotika-putrasya  rajftah  Rudra- 
damnah  Jayadama-putrasya  fca]  rar$e  dvipaftcS.se  52 
Phalguna-bahidasya  ( ■=  kr$na-pak$usya)  dvitiya  rare 
(  =  divase)  2  madanena  Sifnhila-putrena  bhaginyah 
Jye$  thaviraya  ft  Siinhila-duhituh  aupakiti  sagotrayah 
ya?ti}i  utthapild  ". 

Translation  :  Of  king  Ca?tana,  son  of  Jamotika 
and  of  king  Rudradaman  son  of  Jayadaman,  in  the  year 
52,  on  the  dark  half  of  the  month  of  Phalguna  and  on 
the  2nd  day  -- 

This  inscription  mentions  the  year  52,  the  second 
day  of  the  Kr?na  pakga  of  the  month  of  Phalguna. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  year  mentioned  is  that 
of  the  &aka  era  as  now  known.  For  this  satrapal  house 
reigned  continuosly  for  nearly  300  years  and  has  deft  a 
wealth  of  dated  records.  But  the  name  of  the  era  is 
not  mentioned  in  the  earlier  records.  They  are 
mentioned  merely  as  years  so  and  so. 

/ 

The  earliest  authentic  instance  of  the  use  of  Saka 
era  by  name  is  supplied  by  the  BSdSmi  inscription  of 
Calikya  Vallabhesvara  (Pulakesin  I  of  the  Calukya 
dynasty),  dated  465  of  the  Saka  era  (&aka-  Var$44u 
CatiU-kitevu  paftca-$as\hi-yute$u :  Epigraphia  Ittdica 
XXVII,  p.  8).  In  literature  the  use  of  the  era  by  name 
appears  still  earlier.  The  Lokavibhaga  of  SimhasQrl,  a 
Digambara  Jaina  work  in  Sanskrit  is  stated  in  a 
manuscript  to  have  been  completed  in  80  beyond  300 
(i.e.  380)  of  the  Saka  years  ( Ep .  Ind.,  XXVII,  p.  5). 
There  is  no  doubt  that  the  era  used  in  the  records  of 
the  western  satrapal  house  beginning  with  Cabana 
and  Rudradaman  have  come  down  to  the  present^imes , 
as  the  Saka  Era,  which  is  the  ‘Era’  par  excellence 
used  by  Indian  astronomers  for  purposes  of  calculation. 
There  ere  30  or  more  ‘Eras’  which  have  been  in  use 
in  India  (vide  §  5‘8),  but  none  of  them  have  been 


234 


REPORT  OF-  ALENBAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


used  for  calendarical  calculation  by '  'the  Indian 
astronomers. 

Yet  it  is  difficult  to  assign  the  origin  or  tne  aana 
era  to  the  western  satraps.  An  era  can  be  founded 
only  by  an  imperial  dynasty  like  the  Seleucids,  the 
Parthians  or  the  Guptas.  The  western  satraps  never 
claim,  in  their  numerous  records,  any  imperial  position. 
They  are  always  satisfied  with  the  subordinate  titles 
like  Ksatrapa.  ( Satrap )  or  Mahd  K$atrapa  (Great  Satrap) 
while  the  imperial  position  is  claimed  by  their 
northern  contemporaries,  the  Kusaqas. 

The  conclusion  is  that  the  western  K$atrapas 
used  the  old  Saka  era,  with  200  omitted  ;  so  that  year 
1  of  the  present  Saka  era  is  year  201  of  the  old  Saka 
era,  i.e.,  (201— 122)  =  79  A.D. 

The  gradual  adoption  of  characteristic  Indiafi 
ideas  by  the  Sakas  is  shown  in  a  record  of  Satrap 
Rudrasimha  dated  103  S.E.  or  181  A.D. 

[Gunda  Stone  Inscription  of  the  time  of 
Rudrasimha  I,  Sircar,  p.  176] 

Siddhani.  Raj  Hah  mahakqatrapasya  svami- Cas\ana- 
prapautrasya  rajTiah  k$atrapasya  svami  Jayadamapautrasya 
rajflah  mahak$atrapasya~  svami-Rudradama-putrasya 
r&jftah  ksatrapasya  svami-Rudrasifnhasya  var$e  tryutta- 
rasata  {tame)  (  *=adhika )  103  VaiSakha  Suddhe 

( —  Suklapakqe)  paHcama-dhanya  tithau  Rohini  nak$atra- 
muhurie  abhirena  senapati  Bappakasya  putreria  senapati 
Rudrabhutind  grame  rasapadrake  vapi  (=hupah) 
khanita,  bandhita  [ hiladibhih ]  ca  sarva  sattvandin  hila- 
sukhartham  iti. 

Translation  :  Of  king  Mahak$atrapa . of  Svami 

Rudrasimha  in  the  year  103  in  the  light  half  of  the 
month  of  Vaisakha  on  the  5th  tithi  and  in  the  RohiijI 
nakjatra  muhUrta, . 

The  Saka  satrap  Rudrasimha,  reigning  in  181  A.D. 
thus  dates  his  inscriptions  using  an  era  (the  Saka  era), 
purely  Indian  months,  tithis  and  nak$atras.  This  is 
in  full  Siddhantic  style,  because  the  characteristic 
features  of  Siddhantic  method  of  date  recording  which 
mention  lithi  and  nak$atra  are  first  found  in  this 
inscription.  The  ‘week  day’  is  however  not  njpntioned. 

This  is  first  mentioned  in  an  inscription  of  the 
emperor  Budhagupta  (484  A.  D.). 

Sate  paHcasagtyadhike  varqanafn  bhnpatau  ca 

Budhagupte  Agasha  masa  \_&ukla~\ — [cii;a]  dasyain 
sjfragurordi  vase . 

( Iran  Stone  JPillar  .  Insciiption  of  Rudha  Gupta — 
Gupta  year  1®**=  484  A.D.). 

Translation  :  In  the  year  165  of  the  Gupta  era 
during  the  reign  of  emperor  Budhagupta  in  the  month 
A  X'*4ha  and  on  the  12th  tithi  of  the  light  half  which 
was  a  Thursday  (i.e.  day  dedicated  to  the  preceptor 
of  Gods). 


6.6  SOLAR  CALENDAR  IN  THE  SlDDHANTA 
JYOTISHA  PERIOD 

Rise  of  Siddhaatas  or  Scientific  Astronomy. 

The  Vedariga  Jyoti$a  calendarical  rules  appear, 
from  inscriptional  records,  to  have  been  used  right  up 
to  the  end  of  the  reign  of  the  Satavahanas  (200  A.D.). 
The  analysis  of  inscriptional  data  on  methods  of  date¬ 
recording  given  in  §  5*5  shows  that  it  was  the  Saka 
and  Ku$3i)a  rulers  (50  B.C.-100  A.D.),  who  introduced 
the  Graeco-Chaldean  methods  of  date-recording, 
prevalent  in  the  Near  East  into  India.  These  methods 
require  a  knowledge  of  the  fundamentals  of  astronomy, 
which  must  have  been  available  to  the  Saka  and 
Kusaqa  rulers.  In  India,  as  the  inscriptional  records 
show,  some  purely  Indian  dynasts  probably  accepted  the 
system  in  full  from  about  248  A.D.*  (date  of  foundation 
of  the  Kalachuri  era,  the  earliest  era  founded  by  Indian 
kings,  leaving  aside  the  Saka  era  which  is  admittedly'of 
foreign  origin  and  the  Vikrama  era  whose  origin  is  still 
shrouded  in  mystery).  During  the  time  of  the  Guptas 
who  founded  an  era  commemorating  their  accession  to 
power  in  319  A.D.  the  integration  of  the  western 
system  with  the  Indian  appears  to  have  been  complete. 

Indian  astronomical  treatises,  explaining  the  rules 
of  calendaric  astronomy,  are  known  as  Siddhantas,  but 
it  is  difficult  to  find  out  their  dates.  The  earliest 
Indian  astronomer  who  gave  a  date  for  himself  was  the 
celebrated  Aryabhata  who  flourished  in  the  ancient 
city  of  Pataliputra  and  was  born  in  476  A.D. 

It  is  necessary  to  reply  to  a  question  which  has 
very  often  been  asked,  but  never  satisfactorily 
answered,  vix.,  ' 

Why  did  the  Indian  savants  who  were  in  touch  with 
the  Greeks ,  and  probably  with  Greek  science  since  the  time 
of  Alexander's  raid  {323  B.C. ),  take  about  500-600  years 
to  assimilate  Greek  astronomy ,  and  use  it  for  their  oim 
calendar-framing  ? 

The  Indians  of  300  B.C.  to  400  A.D.,  were  quite 
vigorous  in  body  as  well  as  in  intellect  as  is  shown  by 
their  capacity  to  resist  successive  hordes  of  foreign 
invaders,  and  their  remarkable  contributions  to 
religion,  art,  literature  and  certain  sciences.  Why  did 
they  not  accept  the  fundamentals  of  Greek  astronomy 
for  calendarical  calculations  earlier  ? 

The  reply  to  this  query  appears  to  be  as  follows  : 

The  Greeks  of  Alexander’s  time  had  almost  nothing 
to  give  to  the  Indians  in  calendaric  astronomy,  for 
their  own  knowledge  of  astronomy  at  this  period  was 
extremely  crude  and  far  inferior  to  that  of  the 
contemporary  Chaldeans.  The  remarkable  achieve¬ 
ments  of  the  Greeks  in  astronomy,  and  geometry. 


INDIAN  CALENDAR 


23S 


though  they:  started  from  the  time  of  Alexander. 
{Plato’s  Academy),  really  flowered  in  full  bloom  in  the 
century  following  Alexander  {330  B.G.  — 200  B.C.). 
The  culmination  is  found  in  Hipparchos  of  Rhodes 
who  flourished  from  160 — 120  B.C.  ;  he  wrote  treatises 
on  astronomy.  Simultaneously  in  Seleucid  Babylon, 
Chaldean  and  Greek  astronomers  made  scientific 
contributions  of  the  highest  order  to  astronomy  {  vide 
§  4.7  8c  4.8  ),  but  none  of  their  works  have  survived,  but 
are  now  being  found  by  archaeological  explorations. 

It  is  therefore,  obvious  that  the  Indians  of  the  age 
of  Asoka  (273  B.C. — 200  B.C.),  who  were  in  touch  with 
the  Greek  kingdoms  of  Babylon  and  Egypt,  had  not 
much  to  learn  from  the  Greeks  in  astronomy. 

The  Mauryas  were  succeeded  by  the  Suftgas 
(186  B.C.— 75  B.C.),  but  Indians  during  this  age  were  in 
touch  only  with  the  Bactrian  Greeks.  But  by  this  time, 
the  Parthian  empire  had  arisen  (250  B.C.),  producing 
a  wedge  between  western  and  eastern  Greeks.  The 
only  dated  record  of  the  Indo-Bactrian  king, 
Menander  (150  B.C.),  is  purely  Indian  in  style. 

By  about  150  B.C.,  direct  contact  between  India 
and  Greater  Greece  which  included  Babylon  had  almost 
ceased,  due  to  the  growth  of  the  Parthian  empire. 
Whatever  ideas  came,  was  through  the  Saka-Ku§Si)a 
kingdoms  which  came  into  existence  after  90  B.  C.  By 
that  time,  astronomy  was  regarded  as  only  secondary 
to  planetary  and  horoscopic  astrology,  which  had 
grown  to  mighty  proportions  in  the  West.  This  may 
have  been  probably  one  of  the  main  reasons  for  late 
acceptance  of  Graeco-Chaldean  astronomy  in  India, 
for  Indian  thought  during  these  years  was  definitely 
hostile  to  astrology. 

It  will  surprise  many  of  our  readers  to  be  told 
that  astrology  was  not  liked  by  Indian  leaders  of 
thought,  which  dominated  Indian  life  during  the  period 
500  B.C.  — 1  A.D.  Nevertheless,  it  is  a  very  correct 
view. 

The  Great  Buddha,  Whose  thoughts  and  ideas 
dominated  India  from  500  B.C.  to  the  early  centuries 
of  the  Christian  era,  was  a  determined  foe  of  astro¬ 
logy.  In  Buddha’s  time,  and  for  hundreds  of  years 
after  Buddha,  there  was  in  India  no  elaborate  planetary 
or  horoscopic  astrology,  but  a  crude  kind  of  astrology 
based  on  conjunctions  of  the  moon  with  stars  and 
on  various  kinds  of  omina  such  as  appearance 
of  comets,  eclipses,  etc.  But  Buddha  appears  to 
have  held  even  such  astrological  forecasts  in  great 
contempt,  as  is  evident  from  the  following  passage 
ascribed  to  him  : 

Yatha  va  pan’eke  bhonto.  Samapa-brahmana 

saddba-deyyani  bhoianani  bhunjitva  te  evarupaya 

tiracchana-vijjaya  micchajxvena-jlbikam  kappenti- 


seyyathidam  “canda-ggaho  bhavissati, 
suriyaggaho  bhavissati,  nakkhatta-ggaho  bhavissati. 
Candima  suriyanam  pathagamanam  bhavissati, 
candima  suriyanam  uppathagamanam,  bhavissati, 
nakkhattanam  pathagamanam  bhavissati, 
nakkhattanam  uppathagamanam  bhavissati. 

Ukkapato  bhavissati.  Disa-daho  bhavissati. 

Bhumiealo  bhavissati.  Devadundubhi  bhavissati. 
Candima  suriya  nakkhattanam  uggamanam 
ogamanam  samkilesam  vodanam  bhavissati.”* 

( Digha  Nikaya,  Vol.  1,  p.  68,  Pali  Text  Book  Society) 

Translation  :  Some  brahmaryxs  and  Sramavtas  earn 
their  livelihood  by  taking  to  beastly  professions  and 
eating  food  brought  to  them  out  of  fear  ;  they  say  : 
“there  will  be  a  solar  eclipse,  a  lunar  eclipse,  occulta- 
tion  of  the  stars,  the  sun  and  the  moon  will  move  in 
the  correct  direction,  in  the  incorrect  direction,  the 
nakjatras  will  move  in  the  correct  path,  in  the 
incorrect  path,  there  will  be  precipitation  of 
meteors,  burning  of  the  cardinal  directions  (?),  earth¬ 
quakes,  roar  of  heavenly  war  drums,  the  sun,  the 
moon,  and  the  stars  will  rise  and  set  wrongly  producing 
wide  distress  amongst  all  beings,  etc.” 

This  attitude  to  astrology  and  astrolatry  on  the 
part  of  Indian  leaders  of  thought  during  the  period  of 
500  B.C.  to  100  A.D.,  was  undoubtedly  a  correct  one, 
and  would  be  welcomed  by  rationalists  of  all  ages  and 
countries.  But  such  ideas  had  apparently  a  very 
deterrent  effect  on  the  study  of  astronomy  in  India. 
Pursuit  of  astronomical  knowledge  was  confused  with 
astrology,  and  its  cultivation  was  definitely  forbidden 
in  the  thousands  of  monasteries  which  sprang  all  over 
the  country  within  few  hundred  years  of  the  NirvSija 
(544  B.C./  483  B.C).  Yet  monasteries  were  exactly  the 
places  where  astronomical  studies  could  be  quietly 
pursued  and  monks  were,  on  account  of  their  leisure 
and  temparament,  eminently  fitted  for  taking  up  such 
studies,  as  had  happened  later  in  Europe,  where  some 
of  the  most  eminent  astronomers  came  from  the 
monkist  ranks,  e.g.,  Copernicus  and  Fabricius. 

Neither  did  Hindu  leaders,  opposed  to  Buddhism, 
encourage  astrology  and  astrolatry.  The  practical 
politician  thought  that  the  practice  of  astrology  was 
not  conducive  to  the  exercise  of  personal  initiative 
and  condemned  it  in  no  uncertain  terms.  In  the 
Artha&astra  of  Kautilya,  a  treatise  on  statecraft,  which 
took  shape  between  300  B.C.  and  100  A.D.,  and  is 
ascribed  to  Canakya,  the  following  passage  is 
found  : 


*  Acknowledgement  is  due  to  Prof.  Mm.  Bidhusekhar  Sastri, 
who  supplied  these  passages. 


REPORT  OF  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


Kau\illya  Artha&dstra 

N&kfatram  atipfcchantam  bal&m  artho’tivartate 

Artho  hyarthasya  nak?atram  kim  kari$yanti  tarakalj. 

Translation :  The  objective  ( artha )  eludes  the 
foolish  man  ( balam )  who  enquires  too  much  from  the 
stars.  The  objective  should  be  the  nakgalra  of  the 
objective,  of  what  avail  are  the  stars  ? 

This  may  be  taken '  to  represent  the  views  of  the 
practical  politician  about  astrology  and  astrolatry, 
during  the  period  500  B.C.  to  100  B.C. 

Canakya  was  the  great  minister  of  Candragupta, 
and  history  says  that  these  two  great  leaders  rolled 
back  the  hordes  of  the  Macedonians,  who  had  con« 
quered  the  Acheminid  Empire  of  Iran  comprising 
the  whole  of  the  Near  East  to  the  borders  of  Iran; 
and  thereafter  laid  the  foundation  of  the  greatest 
empire  India  has  ever  seen.  They  clearly  not  only  did 
not  believe  in  astrology,  but  openly,  and  without  reserve, 
ridiculed  its  pretensions. 

But  the  influence  of  original  Buddhism  waned  after 
the  rise  of  Mahayanist  Buddhism,  which  received 
jjreat  encouragement  during  the  reign  of  Kani§ka 
{78  A.D.  to  102  A.D.)  and  other  Ku§ai>a  and  Saka 
kings.  Then  came  Buddhist  iconography,  coins,  and 
knowledge  of  the  methods  of  western  date-recording 
which  the  Sakas  and  Kugaijas  used.  They  blended 
with  the  indigenous  Indian  system  slowly. 

The  focus  of  diffusion  of  western  astronomical 
knowledge  appears  to  have  been  the  city  of  UjjayinI, 
capital  of  the  western  Satraps  who  were  apparently 
the  first  to  use  a  continuous  era  ( the  Saka  era  ),  and 
a  method  of  date-recording  which  was  at  first  purely 
Graeco-Chaldean  as  prevalent  in  Seleucid  Babylon, 
but  gradually  Indian  elements  like  the  tithi  and  the 
nakgatra  were  blended,  as  we  find  for  the  first  time 
in  the  inscription  of  Satrap  Rudrasimha,  dated  181 
A.D.  {vide  §  5-5). 

This  city  of  UjjayinI  was  later  adopted  as  the 
Indian  Greenwich,  for  the  measurement  of  longitudes 
of  places.  The  borrowal  of  astronomical  knowledge  was 
not  therefore  from  Greece  direct,  but  as  now  becomes 
increasingly  clearer,  from  the  West,  which  included 
Seleucid  Babylon,  and  probably  through  Arsacid 
Persia.  The  language  of  culture  in  these  regions 
was  Greek,  and  we  therefore  find  Greek  words  like 
kendra  Centre),  liptikS.  (lepton),  hora  (hour)  in  use  by 
Indian  astronornifft. 

This  view  is  supported  by  the  Indian  myth  that 
astrolatry  and  astrology  were  brought  to  India  by  a 
party  of  Sakadvipi  Bralimaiyis  (Scythian  Brahmins), 
who  were  invited  to  come  to  India  for  curing  Samba, 
the  son  of  Kr$qa,  of  leprosy  by  means  of  incantations 


to  the  Sungod.  Professional  astrologer*;  in-  many 
parts  •  of  India,  admit  to  being;  descendant*  hof  these 
Aakadvipi  Brahmayas  and  probably  many  of-  .the 
eminent  astronomers  like.  Aryabhata:  and  VarShamilitra 
who  made  great  scientfic  contributions  to  astrdnortty 
belonged  to  this  race.  The  planetary  Sungod  is  always 
shown  with  high  boots  on,  as  in  the  case  of  Central 
Asian  kings  (e.g.,  Kani?ka). 

It  is  a  task  for  the  historian  to  trace  how  the  steps 
in  which  the  importation  of  western  astronomical 
knowledge  took  place  for  the  Siddhantas,  which 
incorporate  this  knowledge  and  are  all  a  few  centuries 
later,  and  many  of  them  bear  no  date. 

A  good  point  d’appui  for  discussion  is  VarShamihira’s 
Palica  SiddhSntika  ;  for  Varahamihira’s  date  is  known. 
He  died  in  587  A.D.,  in  ripe  old  age  so  he  must  have 
written  his  book  about  550  A.D.  This  is  a  compendium 
reviewing  the  knowledge  contained  in  the  five 
Siddhantas  which  were  current  at  his  time.  These 
were  regarded  as  ‘ Apaurugeya ’  or  “knowledge  revealed 
by  gods  or  mythical  persons”. 

The  five  Siddhantas  are  : 

Paitamaha  —Ascribed  to  Grandfather  Brahma. 

Vasigfha  ••■Ascribed  to  the  mythical  sage 

V asigtha,  a  Vedic  patriarch,  and 
revealed  by  him  to  one  Maqtjavya. 

Bomaka  —Revealed  by  god  Vi§i)u  to  Rgi  Romaka 
or  Romaka. 

Paulina  •••Ascribed  sometimes  to  the  sage 

Pulastya,  one  of  the  seven  seers  or 
patriarchs  forming  the  Great  Bear 
constellation  of  stars  (but  see  later). 

Surya  •••Revealed  by  the  Sungod  to  Asura 
-  Maya,  architect  of  gods,  who 
propounds  them  to  the  Rjis. 

The  five  Siddhantas  are  given  in  the  increasing 
order  of  their  accuracy  according  to  Varahamihira. 
Thus  Varahamihira  considers  the  Snrya  Siddhanta  as 
the  most  accurate,  and  next  in  order  are  the  Pauli§a, 
and  the  Romaka.  The  Vasigfha  and  Paitamaha  are, 
according  to  Varahamihira,  not  accurate. 

Why  were  those  Siddhantas  regarded  as  "Apauntr 
geya"  (i.e.  not  due  to  any  mortal  man)  ?  Dlk§it  says 
( Bharatiya  Jyotihastra,  Part  II,  Chap.  1)  : 

“The  knowledge  of  astronomy  as  seen  developed 
during  the  Vedic  and  VedShga  Jyotija  periods  and 
described  in  Part  I,  was  wide  as  compared  with  the 
length  of  the  period  ;  but  it  is  very  meagre ,  when  com¬ 
pared  with  the  present  position***.  The  oldest  of 
astronomical  knowledge  (given  in  the  oldest  Siddhantas) 
reveal  a  sudden  rise  in  the  standard  of  astronomical 
knowledge.  .  Those  who  raised  the  standard  as  given 


INDIAN  6ADBNDAR 


inLCTi£$e-wor«8;  werenatutally  regarded- as  superhuman, 
and  hence  the  available  ancient  works  on  astronomy 
are  regarded  as-;  '-apaurmeya  (i.e.  hot  compiled  by 
mortal  men)  and  it  is  clear  that  the  belief  has  been 
formed  later*' . 

This  statement,  made  by  Dlk§it  nearly  sixty  years 
ago*  really  sihgles  out  only  one  phase  of  the  issue,  viz., 
the  wide  gulf  in  the  level  of  astronomical  knowledge  of 
the  Siddhantas  and  that  in  the  Vedai),ga  Jyoti$a  ; 
but  leaves  the  question  of  actual  authorship  open.  In 
our  opinion  the  Siddhantas  were  regarded  as 
Apauru$eya  because  they  appear  to  have  been  com¬ 
pilations  by  different  schools  of  the  knowledge  of 
calendaric  astronomy,  as  they  diffused  from  the  West 
during  the  period  100  B.C. — 400  A.D.  But  let  us  look 
into  them  a  little  more  closely. 

The  Paitamaha  Siddhanta  :  described  in  five 
stanzas  in  Chap.  XII.  of  the  Paflca  Siddhantika. 

As  already  discussed  it  is  a  revised  edition  of  the 
Vedariga  Jyotiqa  .but  later  authors  say  that  it  contained 
rules  for  the  calculation  of  motions  of  the  sun,  the 
moon  and  also  the  planets  which  were  not  given  by 
the  Ved&nga  Jyolj$a.  As  the  full  text  of  the  original 
-  Siddhanta  has  not  been  recovered,  it  is  difficult  to  say 
how  the  borrowal  took  place. 

The  Vasistha  Siddhanta  :  as  known  to  Varahamihira 
is  described  in  13  couplets  in  Chap.  II  of  the  Pafica 
Siddhantika.  It  describes  methods  of  calculating  tithi 
and  nak?aira.  which  are  inaccurate.  Besides  it  mentions 
Rasi  (zodiacal  signs),  angular  measurements,  discusses 
length  of  the  day,  and  the  lagna  (ascendant  part  of  the 
zodiac).  Apparently  this  represents  one  attempt  by  a 
school  to  propagate  western  astronomical  knowledge. 
The  school  persisted  and  we  have  Vasistha  Siddhantas 
later  than  Varahamihira.  One  of  the  most  famous  was 
Visijucandra  (who  was  somewhat  later  than  Aryjbha^a) 
who  was  conscious  of  the  phenomenon  of  precession 
of  the  equinoxes.  No  text  of  the  Siddhanta  is 
available,  except  some  quotations. 

Varahamihira  pays  a  formal  courtesy  to  Paitamaha 
and  Va &i$tha ;  this  does  not  prevent  him  from 
describing  these  two  as  ‘ duravibhra$\au’ ,  i.e.,  furthest 
from  truth. 

The  Romaka  Siddhanta  : 

The  Romaka  Siddhanta  as  reviewed  by  Varahamihira 
uses  : 

A  Yuga  of  2850  years “19x5x30  years  ; 

150  fears =54787  days; 

1  year  =365.2467  days. 

The  number  of  intercalary  months  in  the  yuga  is 
given  as  1050,  i.e.,  there  are  7  intercalary  months  in 
19  years. 


29T 

We*  need  not  go  any  further  into  the  contents  of 
this  Siddhanta.  As  the  name  indicates,  the  knowledge 
was  borrowed  from  the  West,  which  was  vaguely 
known  as  'Romaka*  after  the  first  century  A.D.  The 
yuga  taken  is  quite  un-Indian,  but  appears  to  be  a 
blending  of  the  nineteen-year  cycle  of  Babylon,  the 
fivcyearly  yuga  of  Vedaiiga  Jyotiqa,  and  the  number  30 
which  is  the  number  of  tithis  in  a  month.  The  length 
of  the  year  is  identical  with  Hipparchos’s  (365.2467), 
and  this  alone  of  the  Siddhantas  gives  a  length  of  the 
year  which  is  unmistakeably  tropical. 

The  Romaka  Siddhanta  appears  to  represent  a 
distinct  school  who  tried  to  propagate  western  astro¬ 
nomical  knowledge  on  the  lines  of  Hipparchos.  One 
of  the  later  propounders  was  Srlijeqa,  who  flourished 
between  Aryabhata  and  Brahmagupta  ;  the  latter 
ridicules  him  roundly  for  having  made  a  " kantha ",  i.ev 
a  wrapper  made  out  of  discarded  rags  of  all  types — 
meaning  probably  Srljeqa's  attempt  to  blend  two 
incongruous  systems  of  knowledge,  western  and 
eastern. 

The  Paulisa  Siddhanta 

This  Siddhanta  ’was  at  one  time  regarded  as  the 
ival  of  the  Sufya  Siddhanta,  but  no  text  is  available 
now.  But  it  continued  to  be  current  up  to  the  time 
.  of  Bhattotpala  (966  A.D.),  who  quotes  from  it. 

Alberuni  (1030-44  A.D.)  who  was  acquainted  with 
it,  said  that  it  was  an  adaptation  from  an  astronomical 
treatise  of  Paulus  of  Sainthra,  i.e.,  of  Alexandria.  But 
it  is  not  clear  whether  he  had  actually  seen  Paulus's 
treatise,  and  compared  it  with  the  Paulisa  Siddhanta 
or  simply  made  a  guess  on  the  analogy  of  names  merely. 
The  name  of  one  Paulus  is  found  in  the  Alexandrian 
list  of  savants  (378  A.D.)  but  his  only  known  work  is 
one  on  astrology,  and  it  has  nothing  in  common  with 
Paulisa  Siddhanta,  which  appears  to  have  been  purely 
ah  astronomical  treatise  as  we  can  reconstruct  it  from 
the  Paflca  Siddhantika,  ( vide  intro).  The  ascription  to 
Paulus  .  of  Alexandria  is  not  therefore  proved*  There 
is,  however,  reference  in  the  Pau’isa  Siddhanta  to 
Alexandria,  or  Yavqnapura,  as  it  was  known  to  Hindu 
savants.  The  longitudes  of  Ujjainl  and  Banajas  are 
given  with  reference  to  Alexandria  (P.  S.,  Chap.  III). 

The  Paftca  Siddhantika,  devotes  a  few  stanzas  of 
Chaps.  I,  III,  VI,  VII,  and  VIII  to  this  exposition  of  the 
Paulina  Siddhanta.  Nobody,  seems  to  have  gone  critically 
into  the  contents  of  these  chapters  after  Dr.  Thibaut 
who  tried  to  explain  these  in  his  introduction  to  the 
Paftca  Siddhantika ,  but  left  most  of  them  unexplained 
owing  to  their  obscurity. 

In  Chap.  I,  (verses  24 — 25),  30  Lords  of  the  days  of 
the  month  are^  mentioned.  This  is  quite  un-Indian 


BEPOBT  OP  THE  CALSNDAB  BEFOBM  COMMITTEE 


«3e 

and  reminds  one  of  the  Iranian  calendar  in  which  each 
one  of  thirty  days  of  the  month  is  named  after  a  god 
or  principle  ( see  §  2.3).  The  names  of  the  lords  of  the 
days  as  given  in  the  Pauli&a  Siddhanta  are  of  course 
all  Indian. 

The  Surya  Siddhanta 

Of  all  the  Siddhantas  mentioned  by  VarShamihira 
this  alone  has  survived  and  is  still  regarded  with 
veneration  by  Indian  astrologers.  This  Siddhanta  was 
published  with  annotations  by  Rev.  E.  Burgess,  in  1860, 
and  has  been  republished  by  the  Calcutta  University 
under  the  editorship  of  P.  L.  Gangqoly,  with  an  intro¬ 
duction  by  Prof.  P.  C.  Sengupta. 

This  is  supposed  to  have  been  described  by  the 
Sungod  to  Asura  Maya,  the  architect  of  the  gods,  who 
revealed  it  to  the  Indian  R§is.  These  legends  certainly 
represent  some  sort  of  borrowing  from  the  West,  but 
it  would  be  fruitless  to  define  its  exact  nature  unless 
the  text  is  more  critically  examined.  VarShamihira 
describes  in  Chapters  IX,  X,  XI,  XVI,  XVII  of  the 
Paftca  Siddhantika  the  contents  of  the  Surya  Siddhanta 
-as  known  to  him  ;  they  are  somewhat  different  from 
those  as  found  in  the  modern  text.  It  appears  that 
this  Siddhanta  was  constantly  revised  with  respect  to 
the  astronomical  constants  contained  in  it  as  all 
astronomical  treatises  should  be.  The  text  as  we 
have  now  was  fixed  up  by  Rahganatha  in  1603  after 
which  there  have  been  no  changes.  Burgess,  from 
a  study  of  the  astronomical  constants,  thought  that 
the  final  text  referred  to  the  year  1091  A.D.  Prof. 
P.‘  C.  Sengupta  shows  that  the  S.S.  as  reported  by 
Varahamihira  borrowed  elements  of  astronomical  data 
from  Aryabhata,  and  the  S.S.  as  current  now  has 
borrowed  elements  from  Brahmagupta  (628  A.D.). 

The  modern  Surya  Siddhanta  is  a  book  of  500 
verses  divided  into  14  chapters,  contents  of  which  are 
described  briefly  below  : 

Chap.  I — Mean  motions  of  the  Planets. 

»  II — True  places  of  the  Planets. 

»  III — Direction,  Place,  and  Time. 

„  IV — Eclipses,  and  especially  Lunar 

Eclipses. 

„  V — Parallax  in  a  Solar  Eclipse. 

»  VI — Projection  of  Eclipses. 

„  VII — Planetary  Conjunctions. 

„  VIII-**.The  Asterisms. 

„  IX — Helhreul  Risings  and  Settings. 

„  X — Moon’s  Risings  -and  Settings,  .  and 

the  Elevation  of  her  Cusps. 

i,  XI — Certain  malignant  Aspects  of  the 

Sun  and  the  Moon. 


Chap.  XII — Cosmogony*  Geography,  Dimension 
of  the  Creation. 

„  XIII — Armillary  Sphere,  and  other 

Instruments. 

„  XIV — Different  modes  of  reckoning  Time. 

A  scrutiny  of  the  text  shows  that  it  is,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  elements,  almost  completely  astro¬ 
nomical.  A  few  verses  in  Chap.  Ill,  viz.,  Nos.  9-12 
deal  with  the  trepidation  theory  of  the  precession  of 
equinoxes.  These  are  regarded  by  all  critics  of  the 
Surya  Siddhanta  to  be  interpolations  made  after  the 
12th  century. 

It  will  take  us  too  much  away  from  our  main  theme 
to  give  a  critical  account  of  this  treatise,  but  every 
critic  has  admitted  that  the  text  does  not  show  any 
influence  of  Ptolemy’s  Almagest.  Prof.  P.  C.  Sen- 
gupta’s  introduction  is  particularly  valuable.  This 
Siddhanta  indicates  that  longitudes  should  be  calculated 
from  Ujjain  and  makes  no  mention  of  Alexandria. 
Prof.  Sengupta  thinks  that  it  dated  from  about  400 
A.D.,  but  a  scrutiny  of  the  co-ordinates  of  certain  stars 
marking  the  ecliptic,  which  we  have  discussed  in 
Appendix  5-B,  shows  that  it  might  have  utilized  data 
collected  about  280  A.D.,  when  the  star  Gitra 
(a  Virginis),  was  close  to  the  autumnal  equinoctial 
point,  and  is  therefore  subsequent  to  280  A.D. 

The  rules  of  framing  the  calendar  are  found  in 
Chapter  XII  of  which  we  give  an  account  in  the  next 
section. 

After  about  500  A.D.,  the  Indian  astronomers  gave 
up  the  pretext  of  ascribing  astronomical  treatises  to 
gods  or  mythical  sages  and  began  to  claim  authorship 
of  the  treatises  they  had  written  ;  the  earliest  that  has 
survived  is  that  of  Aryabhata  (476 — 523  A.D.).  The 
objects  of  their  treatises  were  to  frame  rules  for 
calendaric  calculations,  knowledge  of  astronomy 
forming  the  basis  on  which  these  rules  were 
framed. 

In  addition  to  the  Surya  Siddh&nta  only  two  other 
systems  have  survived,  viz., 

The  Arya  Siddhanta— due  to  Aryabhata  II,  an 
astronomer  of  the  10th  century,  and  supposed  to  be 
related  to  the  Aryabhafiya  of  Aryabhata,  who  claims 
to  have  derived  it  from  Brahma ,  the  Creator. 

The  Brahma  Siddhanta — vaguely  related  to  the 
Paitamaha  Siddhanta,  but  the  human  authorship  is 
ascribed  to  the  celebrated  astronomer  Brahmagupta 
(628  A.D.). 

But  a  number  of  astronomical  treatises  like  that  of 
Siddhanta  Siromani  by  BhaskarScSrya  and  many 
others,  have  survived  either  on  account  of  their  own 
merit  or  their  connection  with  astrology. 


INDIAN  •CALENDAR 


The  Solar  Calendar  according  to  the 
Surya  Siddhanta 

The  first  few  verses  of  Chap.  XII  deal  with  the 
creation  of  the  world  according  to  Hindu  conception, 
and  the  creation  of  the  elements  ;  of  the  sun,  the 
moon,  and  the  planets.  The  universe  is  taken  to  be 
geocentric,  and  the  planets  in  order  of  their  decreasing 
distances  from  the  earth  are  given  as  (vide  verse  31,)  : 

Saturn,  Jupiter,  Mars,  the  Sun,  Venus,  Mercury 
and  the  Moon. 

The  fixed  stars  are  placed  beyond  the  orbit  of  Saturn. 

Surya  Siddhanta,  XII,  Verse  32 

Madhye  aamantat  dandasya  bhugolo  byomni  tigthafci 

Bibhrariah  paramam  saktim  brahmano  dharanatmikarii. 

Translation  :  Quite  in  the  middle  of  the  celestial 
egg  (Brahma-Qda),  the  earth  sphere  ( Bhngola )  stands  in 
the  ether,  bearing  the  supreme  might  of  Brahma, 
which  has  the  nature  of  a  self  supporting  force. 

The  astronomers  are  thus  conscious  that  the  earth 
is  a  spherical  body  suspended  in  ether  ( byomni ) 

Verse  34  :  Describes  the  earth’s  polar  axis,  which 
passing  through  ’  the  earth’s  centre  emerges  as 
mountains  of  gold  on  either  side. 

Verse  35  :  Gods  and  R§is  are  supposed  to  dwell 
on  the  upper  (northern)  pole,  and  the  demons  are 
supposed  to  dwell  on  the  nether  (south)  pole. 

Verse  43:  Describes  two  pole-stars  ( Bhruva-tards ) 
which  are  fixed  in  the  sky. 

The  author  could  have  been  aware  only  of  the 
Polaris.  By  analogy  he  inferred  the  existence  of  a 
southern  pole-star  which,  as  is  well-known,  does 
not  exist.  He  had  apparently  no  knowledge  of  .the  sky 
far  south  of  the  equator. 

The  remaining  verses  describe  the  equator  >  As  in 
modern  astronomy,  it  says  that  the  polar  star  is  on  the 
horizon  of  a  person  on  the  equator  and  the  co-latitude 
( Bambaka )  of  the  equator  is  90°. 

The  Siddhantic  astronomers  thus  completely 
accepted  the  geocentric  theory  of  the  solar  system.  It 
was  a  great  improvement  on  the  ideas  of  the  world 
prevalent  in  India  at  the  time  of  the  great  epic 
Mah&bharata  (date  about  300  B.C.),  in  which  the  earth 
is  described  to  be  a  flat  disc,  with  the  Sumeru 
mountain  as  a  protruding  peg  in  the  centre,  round 
which  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  celestial  globe  carrying 
the  stars,  planets>-4da§  sun  and  the  moon  takes  place. 
This  idea  of  the  worldTb  also  found  in  the  J&takas  and 
other  Buddhist  scriptures. 

In  the  subsequent  verses  four  cardinal  points  on  the 
equator  are  recognized,  these  are  : 


'4MQ 

Lanka,  which  i£  technically  the  name  of  a  locality 
on  the  equator  lying  in  the  meridian  of  UjjayinVwhich 
was  the  Greenwich  of  ancient  India,  This  Lanka  had 
nothing  to  do  with  Ceylon,  but  is  a  fictitious  name  ; 

90°  west  of  Lanka  the  city  called  Romaka,  and 
90°  east  of  Lanka  the  city  known  as  Yamako(i. 

The  name  Romaka  vaguely  refers  to  the  capital  of 
the  Roman  Empire.  'Yamakoti'  is  quite  fanciful. 

The  Surya  Siddhanta  takes  it  for  granted  that  the 
sun’s  yearly  motion  through  the  ecliptic  is  known  to 
the  reader  and  now  proceeds  to  explain  the  Signs  of 
the  Zodiac. 

Surya  Siddhanta  XII,  45 

Me?adau  devabhagasthe  devanarii  yati  darsanaiii 

Asuraijafii  tuladau  tu  auryastadbhaga  sancarab- 

Translation  :  In  the  half  revolution  beginning 
with  Me$adi  (lit.  the  initial  point  of  Aries),  the  sun 
being  in  the  hemisphere  of  gods,  is  visible  to  the  gods,  j 
but  while  in  that  beginning  with  Tuladi  (lit.  the  initial 
point  of  Libra)  he  is  visible  to  the  demons  moving  in 
their  hemesphere., 

This  means  that  when  the  sun  reaches  Me^adi,  the 
initial  point  of  the  sign  of  Aries,  the  gods  who  are 
supposed  to  be  in  the  north,  pole  just  witness  the 
rising  of  the  sun  and  has  the  sun  over  the  horizon  for 
six  months.  All  these  six  months,  the  demons  who  are 
supposed  to  be  at  the  south  pole  are  in  the  dark.  It 
is  vice  versa  for  their  enemies  the  Asuras  for  whom, 
dwelling  in  the  south  pole,  the  sun  rises  for  them 
when  it  is  at  Tuladi  (beginning  of  the  Tula  sign  i.e., 
first  point  of  Libra)  and  remains  above  the  horizon  for 
six  months. 

According  to  the  S.S.,  therefore,  the  first  point  of 
Aries  is  coincident  with  the  vernal  equinoctial  point,  and 
the  first  point  of  Libra  with  the  autumnal  equinoctial 
point. 

Surya  Siddhanta,  XIV,  9  and  10 

Bhanoarmakarasamkrant-eb  fanmasa  uttarayanam 

Karkadestu  tathaiva  syat  gapmasa  dakgipayanam.  9 

Dviraeinatha  jtava  stato’pi  sisiraday&b 

Me^adayo  dvadasaite  masastaireva  vatsarab.  10. 

Translation:  From  the  moment  of  the  sun’s  entrance 
(safnkranti)  into  Makara ,  the  sign  of  Capricorn,  six 
months  make  up  his  northward  progress  ( ultarayai)a )  ; 
so  likewise  from  the  moment  of  entrance  into  Karkata, 
the  sign  of  Cancer,  six  months  are  his  southward 
progress  (dak$ii}ayana).  (9) 

Thence  also  are  reckoned  the  seasons  ( j-tu ),  the 
cool  season  (Mira)  and  the  rest,  each  prevailing 
through  two  signs.  Thdse  twelve,  commencing  with 


REPORT  OP  TRE:,QAIi8J8IU.K  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


3# 

Aries,  ^re,  tbs.-papnths;;  ;of  the®  is  i  n»a<fe;  up_.tlj* 
yeah(J<Q); 

These*  quotations  leave  not  thii  slightest  doubt  that 
according' to -the  compilers- of  the  S.S.,  the  first  point 
'of  the-XOfJiac  is  the, point  of  intersection, of  .the  ecliptic 
and  the  equator,  and  the  signs  of  the  zodiac  coyer  30° 
each  of  the  ecliptic. 

It  is;  ^qpiposed  on  good  .grounds  that  much  of  the 
astronomical  knowledge  found  in  the  Surya  Siddhantp, 
is  derived  from  Graeco-Chaldean  sources.  But  it  is 
clear  from  the  text  that  the  compilers  of  the  S.S.  had 
no  knowledge  of  the  precession  of  equinoxes,  but  they 
took  the  first  point  of  Aries  to  be  fixed.  This  is  not  to 
be  wondered  at,  for  as  shown  in  §4.9,  inspite  of  the 
works  of  Hipparchos  and  Ptolemy,  precession  was 
either  not  accepted  or  no  importance  was  attached  to 
it  by  the  astronomers  of  the  Roman  empire.  It  may  be 
added  that  the  compilers  of  the  S.S.  were  not  aware 
of  the  theory  of  trepidation  of  equinoxes  which 
appears  to  have  been  first  formulated  in  the  West  by 
Theon  of  Alexandria  (ca.  370  A.D.).  It  is  also  important 
to  note  that  the  Indian  astronomers  did  not  take  the 
first  point  of  Aries  to  be  identical  with  that  given 
-either  by  Hipparchos,  Ptolemy  or  any  other  western 
authority  as  would  have  been  the  case  if  there  was 
blind-folded  borrowing.  They  assimilated  the  astro¬ 
nomical  knowledge  intelligently  and  took  the  first 
point  of  Aries  as  the  point  of  intersection  of  the 
equator-and  the  ecliptic,  and  made  successive  attempts 
to  determine  it  by  some  kind  of  actual  observations, 
as  shown  in  appendix  5-B.  These  observations  appear 
first  to  have  been  made  ahput  280  A.D. 

Length  of  the  Year 

t 

The  length  of  the  year,  according  to  the  different 
authorities  are  aS  follows. 

Surya  Siddhanta  of  days 

VarShamihira  ...  365d  6h  12m  368  =365.25875 

Current  S.S.  _  365  6  12  3656  ^365.258756 

Ptolemy  (sidereal)  365  6  9  48.6  =365.256813 

Corrett  length  of 

the  sidereal  year. . . .  365  6  9  9.7  =  365.256362 

Correct  length  of 

the  tropical  year-**  365  5  48  45,7  =  365.242196 

N.  B.  Varahamihira's  length  of  the  year  is  also  found  in 
Aryabhata  ardhardtrika,  or  midnight  system,  and  in 
Brahmagupta’s  Khqnda  KhJddyaka. 

How  did  the  Indialrtfctf  ants  manage  to.have  such  .  a 
wrong  value  for  the  length  of  the  year  ? 

The  year,  according  to  the .  Surya  .  Siddhanta,  is 
meant,  to ^be  clearly  tropical,  but  as  the  Indian  savants 
compilin4.the..S)S,  were.ignorant  of  the  .phenomenon  of 


precession  of  the  equinoxes, ,  thpy_were  unaware  of  the 
distinction  Between  the.  sidereal  year  and" the  tropical 
year.  They  had  to  obtain  the  year-length  either  from 
observation  or  from  outside  sources.  If  they  obtained 
,it  from  observations,  they  must  have  counted  the 
number  of  days  passed  between  the  return  of  the  sun 
to  the  same  point  in  the  sky  over  a  number  of  years. 
Such  observations  would  show  that  the  year  had  not 
the  traditional  value  of  366  days  given  in  Vedafiga 
Jyoti$a,  but  somewhat  less.  In  fact, ,  the  Paitamaha 
length  is  365.3569  days  and  there  is  no  reason  to 
believe  that  it  was  derived  from  foreign  sources. 
Successive  observations  must  have  enabled  the  Indian 
savants  to  push  the  accuracy  still  higher. 

Or  alternatively  they  might  have  borrowed  the 
value  from  Graeco-Chaldean  astronomy,  but  we  cannot 
then  explain  why  their  value  is  larger  than  Ptolemy’s. 
We  have  seen  that  the  Bomaka  Siddhanta  gives  a  value 
which  is  Hipparchos’s,  and  tropical,  but  the  three  more 
correct  SiddhSntas  reject  it,  as  being  too  small.  This 
however  indicates  that  they  probably  tried  to  derive 
the  length  from  observations  as  stated  in  the  previous 
paragraph  and  found  the  Bomaka  Siddhanta-length  too 
small.  If  they  had  taken  it  from  some  other  source, 
we  have  still  to  discover  that  source.  It  is  certainly 
not  Ptolemy’s  Almagest. 

The  ex-cathedra  style  of  writing  adopted  by  the 
Siddhantic  astronomers,  e.g.,  the  number  of  days  in  a 
Kalya  (a  period  of  4.32  x  10“  years)  is  1,577,917,828,000 
according  to  Grandfather  Brahma,  or  the  Sungod, 
does  not  enable  one  to  trace  the  steps  by  which  these 
conclusions  were  reached. 

The  two  problems  of  (i)  distinguishing  between  the 
tropical  year,  and  the  sidereal  year  and  of  (ii)  deter¬ 
mining  the  correct  length  of  the  year  in  terms  ot 
the  mean  solar  days  are  very  exacting  ones. 

We  have  seen  how  it  took  the  West  the  whole 
time-period  between  3000  B.C.  to  1582  A,D.  to  arrive 
at  the  idea  that  the  true  length  of  the  tropical  year 
was  close  to  365.2425  days.  Probably  Iranian  astrono¬ 
mers  of  Omar  Khayam’s  time  (1072  A.D.),  who  had  the 
advantage  of  the  great  Arabian  observations  by  al- 
BattSM  and  others  had  a  more  correct  knowledge  of 
this  length.  The  final  acceptance  of  the  distinction 
between  the  tropical  and  the  sidereal  year  dates  only 
from  1687  A.D.,  when  Newton  proved  the  theory  pf 
trepidation  to  be  wrong. 

The  Siddhantic  astronomers  of  500-900  A.D.  canno. 
therefore  be  blamed  for  their  failure  to  grasp  the  two 
problems.  But  what  to  say  of  their  blind  followers' 
who,  in  the  twentieth  century,  would  continue  to 
proclaim  their  belief  in.the  theory. of  trepidation  ? 


INDIAN  GALfcttDk» 


241 


Effect  of  continuance  of  the  mistake 

The  Sarya  Siddhs.nta  value,  viz.,  365.258756  days  .  is 
larger  than  the  correct  sidereal  value  by  '002394  days 
and  larger  than  the  tropical  length  by  .016560  days. 

As  the  S.S.  value  is  still  used  in  almanac-framing, 
the  effect  has  been  that  the  year?beginning  is  advancing 
by  .01656  days  per  year,  so  that  in  course  of  nearly  1400 
years,  the  year-beginning  has  advanced  by  23.2  days, 
so  that  the  Indian  solar  year,  instead  of  starting  on  the 
day  after  the  vernal  equinox  (March  22)  now  starts  on 
April  13th  or  14th.  The  situation  is  the  same  as 
happened  in  Europe,  where  owing  to  the  use  of  a 
year-length  of  365.25  days,  since  the  time  of  Julius 
•Caesar,  the  Christmas  preceded  the  winter  solstice  by 
10  days,  when  the  error  was  rectified  by  a  Bull  of 
Cregory  XIII,  and  the  calendar  was  stabilized  by 
introducing  revised  leap-year  rules. 

The  Calendar  Reform  Committee  has  proposed  that 
the  Indian  New  Year  should  start  on  the  day  after  the 
vernal  equinox  day.  Most  of  the  Indian  calendar 
makers  belong  to  the  no- changer  school,  or  the 
nirayaqa  school  (i.e.,  school  not  believing  in  the 
precession  of  the  .  equinoxes).  But  this  school  does 
not  realize  that  even  if  the  sidereal  length  of  the  year 
be  acceped,  the  Indian  year-length  used  by  them  is 
larger  by  nearly  '0024  days,  which  cannot  be  tolerated. 
So  if  a  change  has  to  be  made,  it  is  better  to  do  it 
whole-hog,  i.e.,  take  the  year-length  to  be  tropical,  and 
start  the  year  on  the  day  after  the  vernal  equinox. 

This  is  the  proposal  of  the  Indian  Calendar  Reform 
Committee,  and  it  is  in  full  agreement  with  the  canons 
laid  down  in  the  Surya  SiddhUnta. 

Historical  Note  on  the  Year-beginning 

The  Indian  year,  throughout  ages,  has  been  of  two 
kinds,  the  solar  and  the  lunar,  each  having  its  own 
starting  day.  The  year-beginning  for  the  two  kinds 
of  years,  for  different  eras,  is  shown  in  Table  No.  27. 


The  Starting  Day  of  the  Solar  Year 

In  the  Vedic  age,  the  year-beginning  was  related 
probably  to  one  of  the  cardinal  days  of  the  year,  but 
we  do  not  know  which  cardinal  day  it  was.  The 
VedShga  Jyotifa  started  the  year  from  the  winter 
solstice  day,  Brahmaijas  started  the  year  from  the 
Indian  Spring  (VasartHifa jyhen  the  tropical  ( Sayana ) 
longitude  of  the  sun  amounted  to  330°. 

The  Siddhantic  astronomers  must  have  found  a 
-confusion,  and  so  fixed  up  a  rule  for  fixing  the  year- 
beginning,  which  we  have  just  now  dicussed.  These 
rules  amount  to  : 


(a)  Starting  the  astronomical  year  from  the 
moment  the  sun  crosses  the  vernal  equinoctial  point. 

(b)  Starting  the  civil  year  on  the  day  following. 

The  Siddhantic  astronomers  thus  brought  the 
Indian  calendar  on  a  line  with  the  Graeco-Chaldean 
calendar  prevalent  in  the  Near  East  during  the 
Seleucid  times. 

In  a  few  cases,  e.g.,  in  the  case  of  the^Vikrama 
era  reckoning  as  followed  in  parts  of  Guzrat,  the  year¬ 
beginning  is  in  Kaitika.  This  seems  to  be  reminiscent 
of  the  custom  amongst  the  Macedonian  Greek  rulers 
of  Babylon  to  start  the  year  on  the  autumnal  equinox 
day. 

The  First  Month  of  the  Year  : 

This  has  to  be  defined  with  respect  to  th'e  defini¬ 
tion  of  the  seasons. 

According  to  modern  convention,  which  is  derived 
from  Graeco-Chaldean  sources,  the  first  season  of  the 
year  is  spring  ;  it  begins  on  the  day  of  vernal  equinox, 
as  shown  in  fig.  25  which  shows  also  the  other  seasons. 
The  Indian  classification  of  seasons  >s.  however, 
different  as  the  following  tdble  shows. 

Table  15— Indian  Seasons. 

—  30°  to  30°... Spring  (Vasanta)  Caitra  &  Vaisakha 
30  to  90  ...Summer  (Grlijma)  Jyai^ha  &  A^adha 

90  to  150  ...Bains  (Var$a)  Sravapa  <fe Bhadra 

150  to  -210  ...Early  Autumn  (Sarat)  Asvitia  &  Kartika 
210  to  270  . .  Bate  Autumn  Agrahayana  A.  Pausa 

(Hemanta) 

270  to  330  ...Winter  (Sisira)  Magha  A  PhAjgona 

The  Siddhantic  astronomers,  therefore,  found 
themselves  in  a  difficulty.  If  they  were  ■  to  follow  the 
Indian  convention,  Caitra  would  be  the  first  month 
of  the  solar  year.  If  they  were  to  follow  the  ’  Graeco- 
Chaldean  covention,  they  had  to  take  VaiSSkha  as 
the  first  month  of  the  solar  year. 

They  struck  a  compromise.  For  defining  the  solar 
year,  they  took  Vaiiakha  as  the  first  month  and  for 
defining  the  lunar  year  they  took  Caitra  as  the  first 
month  (see  §  5'7). 

But  this -rule  has  been  followed  only  in  North 
India.  In  South  India,  they  had  different  practices, 
as  shown  in  the  list  of  solar  month-names  (Table 
No.  16). 

In  North  India  the  first  month  is  Vaisakha  as 
laid  down  in  the  S.S.  which  starts  just  after  sun’s 
passage  through  the  V.E.  point. 

It  is  interesting  to  see  that  in  Tamil  Nad,  some  of 
the  names  are  of  Sans^ritic  origin,  others  are  of  Tamil 
origin.  But  the' most  striking  fact  is  that  the  first J month, 
starting  after  vernat  equinox  is  not  Vaiidkha  as  in  the 


242  -  REPORT  OF  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 

T3$la  16. 


Corresponding  Names  of  Solar  Months. 


Indian  Names 

Bengal 

Assam 

Tamil 

Tinnevelly 

N.  Malayalam 

of  Signs 

Orissa 

Or  S.  Malayalam 
( Orissa ) 

MESA 

VAISAKHA 

BAHAG 

CITTIRAI 

MESA 

MEDAM 

Vystwtf, 

JySijtha 

Jeth 

Yaikasi 

Vrjava 

Edavam 

Mithuna 

A?adha 

Ahar 

Ani 

Mithuna 

Midhunam 

Karka^a 

^ravana 

f^aon 

Adi 

Karkitaka 

Karkitaka 

Siriiha 

Bhadra 

Bhad 

Avani 

SIMHA 

Cihgam 

Kanya 

Asvina 

Ahin 

Puratfasi 

Kanya 

KANNI 

Tula 

Kartika 

Kati 

Arppisi  (Aippasi) 

Thula 

Thulam 

Vrsoika 

Agrahayana 

Aghon 

Karthigai 

Ypscika 

Ypscikam 

Dhanuh 

Pausa 

Puha 

Margali 

Dhanus 

Dhanu 

Makara 

Magha 

Magh 

Thai 

Makara 

Makaram 

Kumbha 

Phalguna 

Phagun 

Masi 

Kumbha 

Kumbham 

Mina 

Caitra 

Ca't 

Pahguni 

Mina 

Minam 

(The  first 

month  of  the  year  has 

been  distinguished 

by  aapitals). 

N.B. 

The  Bengali  or  Oriya  names  of  solar  months  are 

taken  without  change  from  Sanskrit. 

The  Assamese 

names  are  the  same,  but  have  local  pronunciations. 


rest  of  India  but  Chiitirai  or  Caitra,  and  so  on.  We  do 
not  know  why  Tamil  astronomers  adopted  a  different 
convention.  We  can  only  guess  :  probably  they  wanted 
to  continue  the  old  Indian  usage  that  Caitra  is  to 
remain  the  first  month  of  the  year. 

In  Tinnevelley  and  Malayalam  districts  the  solar  . 
months  are  named  after  the  signs  of  the  zodiac. 

There  is,  therefore,  no  uniformity  of  practice  in  the 
nomenclature  of  the  solar  months,  and  in  fixing  up 
the  name  of  the  first  month  of  the  solar  year. 

Solar  Months  :  Definition- 

After  having  defined  the  solar  year,  and  t£ie  year 
beginning,  the  Surya  Siddhanta  proceeds  to  define  the 
“Solar  Month.” 

Surya  Siddhanta,  Chap.  1,13 

Aindavastithibhi-stadvat  samkranfcya  saura  ucyate 
Masairdvadasabhirvargam  divyam  tadaharucyate. 

Translation  :  A  lunar  month,  of  as  many  lunar 
days  (tithi)  ;  a  solar  (saura)  month  is  detarmined  by 
the  entrance  of  the  sun  into  a  sign  of  the  zodiac,  i.e. 
the  length  of  the  month  is  the  time  taken  by  the  sun 
in  passing  30°  of  its  orbit,  beginning  from  the 
initial  point  of  a  sign  ;  twelve  months  make  a  year, 
this  is  called  a  day'bfcji^e  gods. 

This  definiton  is  accepted  by  the  Arya,  and 
Brahma  SiddhZntas  as  well. 

T,he  working  of  this  rule  gives  rise  to  plenty  of 
difficulties,  which  are  described  below  : 


The  mean  length  of  a  solar  month 

=30.43823  according  to  S.S. 

=30.43685  according  to  modern  data. 

The  actual  lengths  of  the  different  solar  months* 
however,  differ  widely  from  the  above  mean  values. 
This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  earth  does  not  move 
with  uniform  motion  in  a  circular  orbit  round  the  sun, 
but  moves  in  an  elliptic  orbit,  one  focus  of  which  is 
occupied  by  the  sun,  and  according  to  Kepler's  second 
law,  it  sweeps  over  equal  areas  round  the  sun  in  equal 
intervals  of  time.  When  the  earth  is  farthest  from 
the  sun,  i.e.  at  aphelion  (sun  at  apogee)  of  the 
elliptic  orbit,  the  actual  velocity  of  the  earth  becomes 
slowest,  and  the  apparent  angular  velocity  of  the 
sun  becomes  minimum,  and  consequently  the  length 
of  the  solar  month  is  greatest.  This  happens  about 
3rd  or  4th  July,  i.e.,  about  the  middle  of  the  solar 
month  of  X$adha  ( Mithuna ),  and  consequently  this 
month  has  got  the  greatest  length.  The  circumstances 
become  reversed  six  months  later  on  about  2nd  or  3rd 
January,  when  the  earth  is  nearest  to  the  sun,  i.e.,  at 
perihelion  (sun  at  perigee),  the  angular  velocity  of  the 
sun  at  that  time  becomes  maximum,  and  consequently 
the  solar  month  of  Pauga  ( Dhanuh. )  which  is 
opposite  to  Asaclha,  has  got  the  minimum  length. 
The  following  two  figures  (  Nos.  25  &  26  )  will  explain 
the  position. 

The  durations  of  the  different  months,  which  are 
different  from  each  other  due  to  the  above  reason,  are 
also  not  fixed  for  all  time.  The  durations  of  the  solar 


INPIAS  CALENDAR 


243 


months  undergo  gradual  variations  on  account  of  two 
reasons  ;  vix.) 


(i)  the  line  of  apsides  of  the  earth’s  elliptic  orbit 
(i.e.,  the  aphelion  and  perihelion  points)  is  not  fixed 


in  space  but  is  advancing  along  the  ecliptic*  at  the 
rate  of  61".89  per  year  or  l.°72  per  century.  This  is 


made  up  of  the  precessional  velocity  of  50."27  per  year 
ip  the  retrograde  direction  and  the  perihelion  velocity 
of  ll."62  per  year  in  the  direct  direction  due  to 
planetary  attraction.  This  movement  of  the  apse  line 
with  respect  to  the  V.E.  point  causes  variation  in  the 
lengths  of  the  different  months. 

(ii)  The  second  reason  is  that  the  ellipticity 
of  the  earth’s  orbit  is  not  constant ;  it  is  gradually 
changing.  At  present  the  eccentricity  of  the  orbit  is 
diminishing  and  the  elliptic  orbit  is  tending  to  become 
circular.  As  a  result,  the  greatest  duration  of  the 
month  is  diminishing  in  length  and  the  least  one 
increasing.  Similarly  the  lengths  of  other  months  are 
also  undergoing  variation. 

The  modern  elliptic  theory  of  planetary  orbits  was 
not  known  to  the  makers  of  Indian  Siddhantas,  but 
they  knew  that  the  sun’s  true  motion  was  far 
from  uniform.  They  conceived  that  the  sun  has 
uniform  motion  in  a  circle,  with  the  earth  not 
exactly  at  the  centre  of  that  circle,  but  at  a 
small  distance  from  it.  The  orbit  therefore  becomes 
an  eccentric  circle  or  an  epicycle.  Here  also  the 
angular  motion  of  the  sun  becomes  minimum  when  at 
apogee  or  farthest  from  the  earth,  and  maximum  when 
nearest  to  the  earth  or  at  perigee.  In  this  case  the 
size  and  eccentricity  of  the  circle  are  invariable 
quantities,  and  consequently  the  maximum  and 
minimum  limits  of  the  months  are  constant.  The 
apse  line  advances  in  this  case  also,  but  with  a  very 
slow  motion,  which  according  to  the  Surya  Siddhanta 
amounts  to  a  degree  of  arc  in  31,008  years,  or  11*'  in  a 
century.  The  variations  of  the  durations  of  months 
due  to  this  slow  motion  of  the  apse  line  is  quite 
negligible  and  the  lengths  of  the  months  according  to 
the  Surya  Siddhanta  are  practically  constant  over  ages. 


Table  17 — Lengths  of  different  solar  months  reckoned  from  the  vernal  equinox. 

Lengths  of  Solar  months. 


According  to  Modern  value  Names  of  Months 
SUrya  Siddhanta  (1950  A.D.)  (as  proposed) 


(1) 

(2) 

( 

3)  • 

- 

(4) 

(5) 

a 

h 

m 

d 

h 

m 

■ 

Vaisakha  (Mefja) 

(  0°  —  30°  ) 

30 

22 

26.8 

30 

11 

25.2 

Caitra 

Jyaigtha  (Vpja) 

(  30  -60  ) 

31 

10 

5.2 

30 

23 

29.6 

Vaisakha 

AgSdha  (Mithuna) 

(  60  -90  ) 

31 

15 

28.4 

31 

8 

10.1 

Jyaisfcha 

Sravaqa  (Karkafa) 

(  90  -120  ) 

31 

11 

24.4 

31 

10 

54.6 

A  gad  ha 

j 

Bhadra  (Simha) 

(120  -150  ) 

31 

0 

26.8 

31 

6 

53.1 

Sravana 

Asvina  (Kanya) 

(150  -180  ) 

30 

10 

35.6 

30 

21 

18.7 

Bhadra 

KSrtika  (Tula) 

(180  -210  ) 

29 

21 

26.4 

30 

8 

58.2 

Asvina 

Agrahayaqa  (VfBcika) 

(210  -240  ) 

29 

11 

46.0 

29 

21 

14.6 

Kartika 

Pauga  (Dhanuh) 

(240  -270  ) 

29 

7 

37.6 

29 

13 

8.7 

Agrahayana 

Magha  (Makara) 

(270  -300  ) 

29 

10 

45.2 

29 

10 

38.6 

Pauga 

PhSlghna  (Kumbha) 

(300  -  330  ) 

29 

19 

41.2 

29 

14 

18.5 

Magha 

Caitra  (Mina) 

(330  -360  ) 

30 

8 

29.0 

29 

23 

18.9 

Phalgtma 

365 

6 

12’6 

-  365 

5 

48‘8 

C.E.— 39 


244 


EEPOBT  OF  THE  CALStUDi &  EEFOEM  COMMITTEE 


In  the  Snrya  Siddh&nia,  a  formula  is  given  for 
finding  the  true  longitude  of  the  sun  from  its  mean 
longitude.  As  the  length  of  a  month  is  the  time  taken 
by  the  sun  to  traverse  arcs  of  30°  each  along  the 
ecliptic  by  its  true  motion,  the  lengths  of  the  different 
months  can  be  worked  out  when  its  true  longitudes  on 
different  dates  of  the  year  are  known.  The  true 
longitude  is  obtained  by  the  Snrya  Siddh&nta  with  the 
help  of  the  following  formula  : 

True  Long.  =* Mean  Long.  — 133. '68  sin  K 

+3.18  sin*  K 

where  _KT=Mandakendra  of  the  sun, 
i.e.,  =*  mean  sun  — sun’s  apogee. 

At  the  approximate  time  of  each  safnkranti,  the 
true  longitude  of  the  sun  is  calculated  by  the  above 
formula  for  two  successive  days,  one  before  the 
attainment  of  the  desired  multiple  of  30°  of  longitude 
and  the  other  after  it,  and  then  the  actual  time  of 
crossing  the  exact  multiple  of  30th  degree  is  obtained 
by  the  rule  of  simple  proportion.  This  is  called  the 
time  of  safnkranti  or  "solar  transit.  The  time  interval 
between  the  two  successive  safnkrantis  is  the  actual 
length  of  the  month.  The  lengths  of  the  months  thus 
derived  from  the  Snrya  Siddhanta  compared  with  the 
modern  values,  the  values  which  we  get  after 
taking  the  elliptic  motion  of  the  sun,  and  the  shift  of 
the  first  point  of  Aries  are  shown  in  Table  No.  17, 
on  p.  243,  in  which  : — 

Column  (1)  gives  the  names  of  months. 

„  (2)  gives  the  arc  measured  from  the  first 

point  of  Aries  (the  V.E.  point) 
covered  by  the  true  longitude 
of  the  sun. 

„  (3)  gives  the  lengths  of  the  months 

derived  from  the  Surya- 
Siddhanta  rules. 

„  (4)  gives  the  correct  lengths  of  the 

months  as  in  1950  A.D. 

„  (5)  gives  the  corresponding  names  of  the 

months  as  proposed  by  the 
Committee. 

It  would  appear  from  table  No.  17  that  the 
lengths- 'of  the  months  of  the  Surya  Siddhanta  are  no 
lopger  correct  ;  tfeey  greatly  differ  from  their  corres¬ 
ponding  modern  vatfftn,  sometimes  by  as  much  as  11* 
hours.  The  Surya  Siddhanta  values,  which  the 
almanac  makers  still  use,  are  therefore  grossly 
incorrect.  Moreover,  the  lengths  of  the  months  are 
undergoing  gradual  variation  with  times  due  to  reasons 
already  explained. 


Different  conventions  tor  fixing  up.  the 
beginning  of  the  solar  month 

The  safnkrSnti  or  ingress  of  the  sun  into  the 
different  signs  may  take  place  at  any  hour  of  the  day. 
Astronomically  speaking  the  month  starts  from  that 
moment.  But  for  civil  purposes,  the  month  should 
start  from  a  sunrise  ;  it  should  therefore  start  either 
on  the  day  of  the  safnkranti  or  the  next  following 
day  according  to  the  convention  adopted  for  the 
locality.  There  are  four  different  conventions  in 
different  States  of  India  for  determining  the  beginning 
of  the  civil  month. 

Rule s  of  Samkr anti 

The  Bengal  rule  :  In  Bengal,  when  a  safnkranti 
takes  place  between  sunrise  and  midnight  of  a  civil 
day,  the  solar  month  begins  on  the  following  day  ;  and 
when  it  occurs  after  midnight,  the  month  begins  on 
the  next  following  day,  i.e.,  on  the  third  day.  This  is 
the  general  rule  ;  but  if  the  safnkranti  occurs  in  the 
period  between  24  minutes  before  midnight  to  24 
minutes  after  midnight,  then  the  duration  of  tithi 
current  at  sunrise  will  have  to  be  examined.  If  the 
tithi  at  sunrise  extends  up  to  the  moment  of  safnkranti, 
the  month  begins  on  the  next  day  :  if  the  tithi  ends 
before  sa'nkranti,  the  month  begins  on  the  next 
following  or  the  third  day.  But  in  case  of  Karka\a 
and  Makara  safnkrantis,  the  criterion  of  tithi  is  not 
to  be  considered.  If  the  Karkatfl  safnkranti  falls  in 
the  above  period  of  48  minutes  about  the  midnight,  the 
month  begins  on  the  next  day,  and  if  the  Makara 
safnkranti  falls  in  that  period,  the  month  begins  on  the 
third  day. 

The  Orissa  rule  :  In  Orissa  the  solar  months  of  the 
Amli  and  Vilayati  eras  begin  civilly  on  the  same  day 
(sunrise  to  next  sunrise)  as  the  safnkranti,  irrespective 
of  whether  this  takes  place  before  or  after  midnight. 

The  Tamil  rule  :  In  the  Tamil  districts  the  rule  is 
that  when  a  safnkranti  takes  place  before  sunset,  the 
month  begins  on  the  same  day,  while  if  it  takes  place 
after  sunset  the  month  begins  on  the  following  day. 

The  Malabar  rule  :  The  rule  observed  in  the  North 
and  South-Malayalam  country  is  that,  if  the  samkranti 
takes  place  between  sunrise  and  18  gha\ikas  (7h  12m) 
or  more  correctly  fth  of  the  duration  of  day  from 
sunrise  (about  1-12  P.M.)  the  month  begins  on  the 
same  day,  otherwise  it  begins  on  the  following  day. 

It  will  be  observed  that  as  a  result  of  the  different 
conventions  combined  with  the  incorrect  month- 
lengths  of  the  Snrya  Siddhanta  we  are  faced  with  the 
following  problem? 


INDIAN.  CALENDAR 


245 


(1)  the  civil  day  of  the  solar  month-beginning 
may  differ  by  1  to  2  days  in  different  parts  of  India. 

(2)  The  integral  number  of  days  of  the  different 
solar  months  also  vary  from  29  to  32. 

The  mouths  of  K&rtika,  Agrahayana>  Pauqa,  Mdgha 
and  Phalguna  contain  29  or  30  days  each,  of  which 
two  months  must  be  of  29  days,  and  others  of  30  days. 
The  months  Caiira ,  VaiS&kha  and  A&vina  contain  30 
or  31  days. 

The  rest,  viz.,  Jyai$(ha,  A$a4ha,  ferUvaya  and 
Bhadra  have  got  31  to  32  days  each,  of  which  one  or 
two  months  will  contain  32  days  every  year. 

(3)  The  length  of  the  month  by  integral  number 
of  civil  days  is  not  fixed,  it  varies  from  year  to  year. 

Justification  of  the  Solar  Calendar  as  proposed 
by  the  Committee 

It  has  been  shown  that  the  intention  of  the  maker 
of  Surya  Siddhanta  and  of  other  Siddhantas  was  to 
start  the  year  from  the  moment  of  sun’s  crossing  the 
vernal  equinoctial  point  and  to  start  the  civil  year 
from  the  day  following.  The  Committee  has  also 
adopted  this  view  and  proposed  that  the  civil  year 
for  all-India  use  should  start  from  the  day  following 
the  V.  E.  day,  i.e.,  from  March  22.  In  the  Vedic 
literature  also  it  is  found  that  the  starting  of  the  year 
was  related  with  one  or  other  of  the  cardinal  days  of 
the  year.  The  Vedanga  Jyoti$a  started  the  year  from 
the  winter  solstice  day,  the  Br&hmanas  started  the 
year  from  the  Indian  spring  {Vasanta)  when  the 
tropical  (Say ana)  longitude  of  the  sun  amounted  to 
330°,  but  in  the  Siddhantic  period  the  year-beginning 
coincided  with  the  V.<E.  day.  So  in  adopting  the 
Sayana  system  in  our  calendar  calculations,  the 
Indiail  tradition,  from  the  Vedic  times  up  to  the 
Siddhantic  times,  has  been  very  faithfully  observed. 
This  has  ensured  that  the  Indian  seasons  would 
occupy  permanent  places  in  the  calendar. 

As  regards  the  number  of  days  per  month,,  although 
the  Surya  Siddhanta  defines  only  the  astronomical 
solar  month  as  the  time  taken  by  the  sun  to  traverse 
30°  of  arc  of  the  ecliptic,  four  different  conventions 
have  been  evolved  in  different  States  of  India  for 
determining  the  first  day  of  the  civil  month  from  the 
actual  time  of  transit  as  narrated  earlier.  None  of 
the  conventions  is  perfect.  Such  rules  do  not  yield 
fixed  number  of  deys  .for  a  month,  as  a  result  of 
which  it  becomes  extreBSely  difficult  for  a  chrono- 
logist  to  locate  any  given  date  of  this  calendar, 
unambiguously,  in  the  Gregorian  calendar,  without 
going  through  lengthy  and  laborious  calculations. 
Moreover,  the  number  of  days  of  months  obtained 


from  such  rules  vary  from  29  to  32,  which  is  very 
inconvenient  from  various  aspects  of  civil  life. 

The  Committee  has  therefore  felt  that  there  is  no 
need  for  keeping  the  solar  months  as  astronomically 
defined.  The  length  of  30  and  31  days  are  quite 
enough  for  civil  purposes.  Moreover,  fixed  durations 
of  months  by  integral  number  of  days  is  the  most 
convenient  system  in  calendar  making.  The  five 
months  from  the  second  to  the  sixth  have  the  lengths 
of  over  30-j  days,  and  so  their  lengths  have  been 
rounded  to  31  days  each  ;  and  to  the  remaining 
months  30  days  have  been  allotted. 

5.7  THE  LUNAR  CALENDAR  IN  THE  SIDDHANTA 
JYOTI8HA  PERIOD 

The  broad  divisions  of  the  year  into  seasons  or 
months  are  obtained  by  the  solar  calendar,  but  since 
for  religious  and  social  puposes  the  lunar  calendar  had 
been  used  in  India  from  the  Vedic  times,  it  becomes 
incumbent  to  devise  methods  for  pegging  on  the  lunar 
calendar  to  the  solar. 

The  extent  to  which  the  lunar  calendar  affects 
Indian  socio-religious  life  will  be  apparent  from  the 
tables  of  holidays  we  have  given  on  pp.  117-154.  There 
the  religious  and  social  ceremonies  and  observances 
and  holidays  of  all  states  and  communities  are  classified 
under  the  headings  : 

(1)  Regulated  by  the  solar  calendar  of  the 
Siddhantas  ; 

(2)  Regulated  by  Gregorian  dates  ; 

(3)  Regulated  by  the  lunar  calendar. 

The  tables  show  that  by  far  the  largest  number  of 
religious  holidays  and  other  important  social  ceremonies 
are  regulated  by  the  lunar  calendar.  It  is  difficult  to 
see  how  the  lunar  affiliation,  inconvenient  as  it  is,  can 
be  replaced  altogether,  short  of  a  revolution  in  which 
we  break  entirely  with  our  past.  The  lunar  calendar 
will  therefore  continue  to  play  a  very  important  part 
as  we  continue  to  keep  our  connection  with  the  past, 
and  with  our  cherished  traditions. 

Let  us  now  restate  the  problems  which  arise  when, 
with  reference  to  India,  we  want  to  peg  the  lunar 
calendar  to  the  solar,  how  it  was  tackled  in  the  past, 
and  how  the  Calendar  Reform  Committee  wants  to 
tackle  it. 

The  lunar  month  consists  of  295306  days  and  12 
such  lunar  months  fall  short  of  the  solar  year  by  fo.88 
days.  After  about  2  or  3  years  one  additional  or  inter¬ 
calary  lunar  month  is  therefore  necessary  to  make  up 
the  year  ;  and  in  19  years  there  are  7  such  intercalary 
months.  In  Babylon  and  Greece  there  were  fixed  rules 


REPORT  OE  THE  CALENDAR  REEORM  COMMITTEE 


246 

for  intercalation  ;  the  intercalary  months  appeared  at 
stated  intervals  ahd  were  placed  at  fixed  positions  in 
the  calendar  (vide  §  3.2).  It  appears  that  some  kind  of 
rough  rules  of  intercalation  of  lunar  months  were 
followed  in  India  up  to  the  first  or  second  century 
A.D.  when  the  calendar  was  framed  according  to 
the  rules  of  Vedanga  Jyoti$a  ( vide  §  5.4).  Thereafter 
the  Siddhantic  system  of  calendar-making  began 
to  develop,  replacing  the  old  Vedanga  calendar. 

The  Vedahga  calendar  as  we  have  seen  was  crude 
and  was  based  on  approximate  values  of  the  lunar  and 
solar  periods,  the  calendar  was  framed  on  the  mean 
motions  of  the  luminaries,  and  as  such  an  intercalary 
month  was  inserted  regularly  after  every  period  of 
30  months. 

The  Siddhanta  Jyotiga  introduced  the  idea  of  true 
positions  of  the  luminaries  as  distinct  from  their  mean 
positions,  and  devised  rules  for  framing  the  calendar 
on  the  basis  of  the  true  positions,  and  adopted  more 
correct  values  for  the  periods  of  the  moon  and  the 
sun.  But  some  time  elapsed  before  new  rules  were 
adopted,  and  intercalary  months  continued  to  be 
calculated  on  the  basis_of  the  mean  motions  of  the 
sun  and  the  moon,  employing  however  more  correct 
values  of  their  periods  as  given  by  the  Siddhantas.  In 
this  connection  the  following  remarks  by  Sewell  and 
Dlk§it,  in  the  Indian  Calendar  (p.  27)  are  worth  noting. 

“It  must  be  noted  with  regard  to  the  intercalation  and 
suppression  of  months,  that  whereas  at  present  these  are 
regulated  hy  the  sun’s  and  moon’s  apparent  motion, — in  other 
words,  by  the  apparent  length  of  the  solar  and  lunar  months 
— and  though  this  practice  has  been  in  use  at  least  from 
1100  A.D.  and  was  followed  by  Bhaskaracarya,  there  is 
evidence  to  show  that  in  earlier  times  they  were  Regulated 
by  the  mean  length  of  months.  It  was  at  the  time  of  the 
celebrated  astronomer  Srlpati  (1039  A.D.)  that  th&  change 
of  practice  took  place”. 

Intercalary  months  or  Malamasas. 

The  length  of  the  Surya  Siddhanta  year  is  365.258756 
days-  and  of  a  lunar  month  according  to  the  S.  S.  is 
29.5305879  days.  Twelve  such  lunar  months  fall  short 
of  the  S.  S.  year  by  10.891701  days.  The  lunar  year 
therefore  slides  back  on  the  solar  scale  each  year  by 
about  ,11  days.  If  the  months  were  allowed  to  slide 
back  continuously  it  would  have  completed  the  cycle 
in  33.5355  years,  and'tjjg  festivals  attached  to  the  lunar 
calendar  would  have  moved  through  all  the  seasons 
of  the  year  within  this  period,  as  now  happens  with  the 
Islamic  calendar. 

To  prevent  the  occurrence  of  this  undesirable 
feature,  the  system  of  intercalary  months  or  mala  mdsas 


have  been  introduced.  Taking  the  mean  vaules  of  the 
lunation“period  and  of  the  length  of  the  solar  year, 
the  time  when  one  extra  month  (*.e.,  intercalary  month) 
will  have  to  be  introduced  can  easily  be  determined. 
But  the  luminaries  do  not  move  with  uniform  angular 
motions  (throughout  their  period  of  revolution  and  so 
the  determination  af  the  intercalary  month  on  the 
basis  of  the  actual  movement  of  the  sun  and  the  moon 
is  a  very  difficult  problem.  The  calculations  according 
to  the  mean  motions  are  however  shown  below. 


Table  18 — Calculation  of  intercalary  months  in  a 
19-year  cycle. 


SGrya 

Modern- 

Modern- 

Siddhanta 

Sidereal 

Tropical 

days 

days 

days 

Length  of  year 

365.258756 

365.256361 

365.242195 

Solar  month 

30.438230 

30.438030 

30.436850 

Lunation 

29.530588 

29.530588 

29  530588 

No.  of  solar  months 

after  which  a  lunar 

month  is  added 

32.5355 

32.5427 

32.5850 

19  years = 

235  lunations 

6939.91636 

6939.86896 

6939.60171 

(  =  19x12  +  7)  = 

Error  in  the 

6939.68818 

6939.68818 

6939.68818 

19-year  cycle 

-0.22818 

-0.18078 

+  0.08647 

It  would  appear  from  the  above  figures  that  the 
19-year  cycle  with  7  mala  masas  is  a  better  approxi¬ 
mation  if  we  adopt  the  tropical  year,  and  the  error 
gradually,  increases  with  the  sidereal  year  and  the 
SGrya  Siddhanta  year.  In  Ilf  cycles,  i.e.,  in  220  years, 
the  discrepancy  would  amount  to  only  a  day  in  the 
case  of  the  tropical  year. 

It  is  also  seen  that  one  intercalary  month  is  to  be 
added  at  intervals  of  32f  solar  months,  or  in  other 
words  an  intercalary  month  recurs  alternately  after  32 
and  33  solar  months.  According  to  this  scheme  the 
intercalary  months  in  a  period  of  19  years  would  be  as 
follows  : — 


Year 

Intercalary  month 

Year 

Intercalary  month 

1 

— 

11 

10  Pau§a 

2 

— 

12 

— 

3 

9  Margaslr$a 

13 

— 

4 

— 

14 

7  Savina 

5 

— 

15 

— 

6 

/ 

5  Sravaija 

16 

— 

7 

— 

17 

3  Jye$tha 

8 

— 

18 

— 

9  . 

10 

2  Vai£akha 

19 

12  Phalguna 

INDIAN  CALENDAR . 


247 


But  the  makers  of  Indian  calendars  have  not 
followed  any  scheme  for  intercalation  based  on  mean 
motions.  They  evolved  a  plan  for  distinguishing  an 
intercalary  month  from  a  normal  month  based  on  the 
true  motions  of  the  sun  and  the  moon.  This  plan  is 
also  followed  in  giving  the  name  to  a  lunar  month,  as 
explained  below  : 

Siddhantic  rules  for  the  Lunar  Calendar 

There  are  two  kinds  of  lunar  months  used  in  India, 
the  new-moon  ending  and  the  full-moon  ending.  In 
calendarical  calculations  only  the  new-moon  ending 
months  are  used. 

(i)  The  new-moon  ending  lunar  month  covers  the 
period  from  one  new-moon  to  the  next.  This  is  known 
as  amanta  or  mukhya  candra  masa.  It  gets  the  same 
name  as  the  solar  month  in  which  the  moment  of  initial 
new-moon  of  the  month  falls.  For  this  purpose  the 
solar  month  is  to  be  reckoned  from  the  exact  moment 
of  one  safnkranti  of  the  sun  to  the  moment  of  the  next 
safnkrdnti.  When  a  solar  month  completely  covers 
a  lunar  month,  i.e.f  when  there  are  two  moments  of 
■  new-moon  {amanta),  one  at  the  beginning  and  the  other 
at  the  end  of  a  solar  month,  then  the  lunar  month 
beginning  from  the  first  new-moon  is  the  intercalary 
month,  which  is  then  called  an  adhika  or  mala  masa, 
and  the  lunar  month  beginning  from  the  second  new- 
moon  is  the  normal  month  which  is  termed  as  fsuddha 
or  nija  in  the  Siddhantic  system.  Both  the  months 
bear  the  name  of  the  same  solar  month  but  are  prefixed 
by  adhika  ox  Buddha  as  the  case  may  be.  In  an  adhika 
month  religious  observances  are  not  generally  allowed. 

If  on  the  other  hand,  a  lunar  month  completely 
covers  a  solar  month,  no  new-moon  having  occurred 
in  that  solar  month,  the  particular  lunar  month  is  then 
called  a  k§aya  or  decayed  month. 

As  the  mvkhya  or  new-moon  ending  lunar  month 
begins  from  the  Amavasya  or  the  new-moon  occurring 
in  the  solar  month  bearing  the  same  name,  the  lunar 
month  may  begin  on  any  day  during  that  solar  month 
— it  may  begin  on  the  first  or  even  on  the  last  day  of 
that  solar  month. 

f  (ii)  The  full-moon  ending  lunar  month  known  as 
purnimdnta  or  gauna  candra  masa ,  covers  the  period 
from  one  full-moon  to  the  next,  and  is  determined  on 
the  basis  of  the  corresponding  new-moon  ending  month 
as  "defined  above. begins  from  the  moment  of  full- 
moon  just  a  fort-night  Btfore  the  initial  new-moon  of 
an  amanta  month,  and  it  also  takes  the  name  of  that  • 
month. 

Blit  in  the  gawqamana  {i.e„  full-moon  ending  lunar 
month),  as  the  month  starts  15  days  earlier  than  the 


new-moon  ending  month,  it  may  begin  on  any  day 
during  the  last  half  of  the  preceding  solar  month  and 
the  first  half  of  the  solar  month  in  question.  It  will 
therefore  be  seen  that  while  the  new-moon  ending  or 
mvkhya  month  sometimes  falls  almost  entirely  out¬ 
side  (i.e.,  after)  the  relative  solar  month,  the  full-moon 
ending  or  a  gauna  month  always  covers  at  least  half  of 
the  solar  month  of  that  name. 

The  months  used  for  civil  purposes  in  the  Hindi 
calendar  are  the  full-moon  ending  lunar  months,  and 
are  sub-divided  into  two  halves— kf^a  pak$a  covering 
the  period  from  full-moon  to  new-moon  and  termed 
as  vadi,  and  §idcla  pak§a  covering  the  period  from  new- 
moon  to  full-moon  and  termed  as  'sudi.  As  these 
months  are  on  the  g  aw  tux  mana,  the  vadi  half  of  a 
month  comes  first  followed  by  the  sudi  half.  The  last 
day  of  the  year  is  therefore  a  full-moon  day,  the 
Phdlguni  (or  Holi )  Purtyima,  in  keeping  with  the 
ancient  Indian  custom. 

The  Samvat  and  Saka  years  in  the  Hindi  calendar 
begins  with  Caitra  Sukla  Pratipad.  For  astronomical 
purposes,  however,  the  year  begins  a  few  days  later 
with  the  entrance  of  the  sun  into  Mega. 

The  calendars  of  A$adhi  Sainvat  and  Karliki  Sainvat 
are,  on  the  other  hand,  based  on  the  new-moon  ending 
months,  and  consequently  the  months  begin  15  days 
later  than  the  months  of  the  Caitradi  full-moon  ending 
calendar.  The  A$a4hi  calendar  begins  with  A$adha 
Sukla  1,  and  the  Kartiki  calendar  with  Kartika 
Sukla  1. 

The  table  (No.  20  on  p.  249)  shows  the  scheme  of 
the  different  calendars  for  the  year  £aka  1875 
(1953-54).  The  year  contains  a  mala  or  adhika  month. 

It  may  be  seen  from  the  above  mentioned  table 
that  in  case  of  the  light  half  of  the  month  {sudi  half) 
the  month  has  the  same  name  for  the  two  systems  of 
month-reckonings,  but  in  the  dark  half  of  the  month 
{vadi  half)  the  names  of  the  months  in  the  two  systems 
are  different. 

The  year-beginnings  of  the  Samvat  era  in  the  three 
systems  of  luni-solar  calendar  are  also  different,  as  may 
be  seen  from  the  following  table. 


Table  19 — Showing  the  year-beginnings  of  the 
different  systems  of  Samvat  era. 


Calendar  Caitradi 
system 

Sainvat  era  2010 


Agadhadi 

system 

2010 


Kartikadi 

system 


2010 


Beginning 

of. year  Caitra  S  1 

(16  Mar.,  1953) 


Asadha  S  1  Kartika  S  1 
(12  July,  1953)  (7  Nov.,  1953) 


248 


REPORT  OF  THE  (TALENT)  AB  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


Coanting  of  th*  Siiceesflion  of  Days 

In  all- the  calendars  used  in  India,  days. are  counted 
according  to  the  solar  reckoning,  as  well  as  according 
to  the  lunar  reckoning  (i.e.,  by  tithi  or  lunar  day). 
But  there  is  a  difference  in  emphasis. 

In  the  eastern  regions  (Bengal,  Orissa  and  Assam), 
and  in  Tamil  Nad  and  Malabar,  the  solar  reckoning  is 
given  more  prominence.  The  almanacs  give  solar 
months  and  count  the  days  serially  from  1  to  29,  30, 
31  or  32  as  the  case  may  be.  The  tithi  endings  are 
given  for  every  day,  and  the  tithi  may  start  at  any 
moment  of  the  day. 

In  other  parts  of  India  (except  Bengal,  Orissa, 
Assam  and  Tamil  Nad),  the  counting  of  days  is  based 
on  the  lunar  reckoning,  and  the  number  of  the  tithi 
current  at  sunrise  is  use'd  as  the  ordinal  number  of 
the  date  necessary  in  civil  affairs.  So  there  are  29  or 
30  days  in  a  month,  but  the  days  are  not  always 
counted  serially  from  1  to  29  or  30. 

The  month  in  the  lunar  calendar  is  divided  into 
two  half-months,  the  Sudi  and  vadi  halves  in  the  new 
moon  ending  system,  and  the  vadi  and  Sudi  halves  in 
the  full-moon  ending  system.  In  fact  the  year  is 
divided  into  24  half-months  instead  of  12  months.  So 
there  are  14  to  15  days  in  a  half-month  ( vide  Table  20). 

The  tithi  or  lunar  day  is  measured  by  the  positions 
of  the  moon  and  the  sun.  When  they  are  in  conjunc¬ 
tion,  i.e.,  at  new-moon  the  30th  tithi  or  amavasya  ends 
and  the  first  tithi  starts  which  continues  upto  the 
moment  when  the  moon  gains  on  the  sun  by  12°  in 
longitude.  Similarly  when  the  difference  between  the 
moon  and  the  sun  is  24°  the  second  tithi  ends,  and  so 
on.  The  average  duration  of  a  tithi  is  23b  37 .°i6,  but 
the  actual  duration,  of  a  particular  tithi  undergoes 
wide  variations  from  the  above  average  according  to 
the  different  positions  of  the  sun,  the  moon  and  the 
lines  of  their  apsides.  It  m$y  become  as  great  as 
26*  47“  and  as  small  as,  19h  59“.  So  generally  to  every 
day  there  is  a  tithi.  But  sometimes  a  tithi  begins  and 
ends  on  the  same  civil  day,  and  such  a  tithi  is  dropped  ; 
and  some  religious  ceremonies  of  auspicious  character 
are  not  allowed  to  take  place  on  such  a  tithi,  and  the 
following  day  begins  with  the  next  following  tithi. 
For  example,  if  the  third  tithi  is  dropped,  the  sequence 
of  days  of  the  half-month  is  1,  2,  4,  5  etc.,  thus  the 
serialityts**  broken  here. 

As  opposed  to  tftfem%>ve-mentioned  case,  the  tithi 
sometimes  extends  over  two  days,  there  being  no  tithi 
ending  in  a  day  (from  sunrise  to  next  sunrise).  As  the 
same  tithi  remains  current  on  two  successive  sunrises, 
the  saiae  li(/j»-number  is '  allotted  to  both  th^  days  j 
in  4he  second  day,  however,  it  is  suffixed  by  the  term 


‘adhika’.  For  example  if  the  third,  tithi  is  repeated, 
then  the  sequence  of  days  of  the  half-month  would  be 
1,  2,  3,  3  adhika,  4,  etc. 

Some,  improvement  in  the  use  of  tithi  for  dating 
purposes  is,  however,  observed  in  the  Fusli  calendar 
in  vogue  in  some  parts  of  Northern  India.  In  this 
calendar  the  month  begins  from  the  day  following  the 
full-moon  and  dates  are  counted  consecutively 
from  1  to  29  or  30  without  any  break  at  new-moon,  or 
any  gapping  or  over-lapping  of  dates  with  kgaya  tithi 
or  adhika  tithi.  In  fact  the  dates  of  this  calendar 
have  no  connection  with  iithis  after  the  starting  of 
the  month  has  been  determined.  The  year  of  Fusli 
begins  after  the  full-moon  day  of  lunar  Bhadra 

Mala  Maaa  and  Kshaya  Masa 

It  has  been  stated  before  that  even  at  the  beginning 
of  the  Siddhanta  Jyoti$a  period,  the  intercalary  months 
( mala  or  adhika)  were  determined  on  the  basis  of  the 
mean  motions  of  the  sun  and  the  moon,  and  as  such 
there  was  no  possibility  of  the  occurrence  of  any  so 
called  k$aya  or  decayed  month.  But  as  already 
mentioned,  from  about  1100  A.D.,  the  intercalary 
months  are  being  determined  on  the  basis  of  the 
true  motions  of  the  luminaries,  i.e.,  on  the  actual 
lengths  of  the  new-moon-ending  lunar  month  and 
of  the  different  solar  months  as  obtained  from 
Siddhantic  rules.  This  gave  rise  to  the  occurrence 
of  ksaya  months,  and  the  intercalary  months 
were  also  placed  at  very  irregular  intervals. 

.  The  period  from  new-moon  to  new-moon  (the  lunar 
month  )  is  not  a  period  of  fixed  duration  ;  it  varies 
within  certain  limits  according  to  the  different 
positions  of  the  apse  line  of  the  lunar  and  solar  orbits, 
as  follows  : — 

Length  of  the  Lunation 


By  mean  motion 

According  to  S.S. 

Modem 

d  b 

d  h 

d  b 

29  6.3 

29  5.9 

29  12.73 

to 

to 

29  19.1 

29  19.6 

Comparing  these  values  with  the  actual  lengths  of 
solar  months  given  in  Table  24,  it  is  observed  that  the 
fninimum  length  of  the  lunar  month  falls  short  of  all 
the  solar  months,  even  of  the  shortest  month  of  Pau9a. 
But  as  a  mala  masa  is  not  possible  in  that  month,  the 
maximum  and  minimum  limits  of  the  lunar  months  are 
recalculated  for  each  of  the  solar  months  from 
K&rtika  to  Fhalguna  separately. 


INDIAN  .CALENDAR  249 

Table  20. 


Scheme  of  the  Lunl-Bohrr  Calendar 

(  Saka  1875  =  1953-54  A.D.  ) 


Religious  Calendar 

Civil  Luni-Solar  Calendar 

Initial  date  reckoned  on  the 

Solar  Calendar  as  is  now 
in  use. 

Mukhya  or  new- 
moon  ending 

Gaur w  or  full- 
moon  ending 

Full-moon 

ending 

New-moom 

ending 

Indian  Solar 
Calendar  date 

Gregorian  date 

Caitra 

S 

Caitra 

8 

Caitra 

8 

Caitra 

S 

2  Caitra 

16 

Mar. 

Caitra 

K 

Vaisakha 

K 

Vaisakha 

V 

Caitra 

V 

17  Caitra 

31 

Mar. 

Vai&akha 

(mala) 

S 

Vaisakha 

(mala) 

S 

Vai&akha 

(adhika) 

8 

VaiSdkha 

(adhika) 

8 

1  Vaisakha 

14 

Apr. 

Vaiidkha 

(mala) 

K 

Vai§iikha 

(mala) 

K 

VaiSdkha 

(adhika) 

V 

VaiSdkha 

(adhika) 

V 

17  Vaisakha 

30 

Apr. 

Vaisakha 

(suddha’ 

S 

1 

Vaisakha 

(suddha’ 

8 

) 

Vaisakha 

8 

Vaisakha- 

s 

81  Vaisakha 

14 

May 

Vaisakha 

(suddha’ 

K 

I 

Jyegtha 

K 

Jyegtha 

V 

Vaisakha 

V 

15  Jyegtha 

29 

May 

Jyestha 

S 

Jyegtha 

8 

Jyegtha 

8 

Jyegtha 

s 

29  Jyegtha 

12 

June 

Jyeslha 

K 

Agadha 

K 

Agadha 

V 

Jyegtha 

V 

14  Agadha 

28 

June 

Agadha 

8 

Asadha 

8 

Asadha 

8 

Agadha 

s 

.  28  Agadha 

12 

July 

AsSdha 

K 

Havana 

K 

Havana 

V 

Asadha 

V 

11  Sravana 

27 

July 

Sravana 

S 

Sravana 

8 

Havana 

8 

Sravana 

s 

25  Sravana 

10 

Aug. 

Sravana 

K 

Bhadra 

K 

Bhadra 

V 

Sravana 

V 

9  Bhadra 

25 

Aug. 

Bhadra 

8 

Bhadra 

S 

Bhadra 

8 

Bhadra 

s 

24  Bhadra 

9 

Sep. 

Bhadra 

K 

Asvina 

K 

Asvina 

V 

Bhadra 

V 

8  Asvina 

24 

Sep. 

Asvina 

8 

Asvina 

8 

Asvina 

s 

A  Bvina 

s 

23  Asvina 

9 

Oct. 

Asvina 

K 

Kartika 

K 

Kartika 

V 

Asvina 

V 

6  Kartika 

23 

Oct. 

Kartika 

8 

Kartika 

'  S 

Kartika 

s 

Kartika 

s 

21  Kartika 

7 

Nov. 

Kartika 

K 

Marga. 

K 

Marga* 

V 

Kartika 

V 

5  Agrab. 

21 

Nov. 

Marga. 

S 

Marga.  • 

S 

Marga. 

8 

Marga. 

s 

21  Agrah. 

■7 

Dec. 

\ 

Marga. 

K 

Pausa 

K 

Pauga 

V 

Marga. 

V 

6  Pauga 

21 

Dec. 

Pauga 

S 

Pauga 

S 

Pauga 

8 

Pauga 

s 

22  Pauga 

6  Jan,  1954 

Pauga 

K 

Magha 

K 

Magha 

V 

Pauga 

V 

6  Magha 

20 

Jan. 

Magha 

S 

Magha 

8 

Magha 

8 

Magha 

s 

21  Magha 

4 

*Feb. 

Magha 

K 

Phalguna 

K 

Phalguna 

V 

Magha 

V 

6  Phalguna 

18 

Feb. 

Phalguna 

8 

Phalguna 

8 

Phalguna 

8 

Phalguna 

8 

22  Phalguna 

6 

Mar. 

Phalguna 

K 

Caitra 

K 

Caitra 

V 

Phalguna 

V 

6  Caitra 

20 

Mar. 

S  =  $ukla  pakga  or  Sudi. 
K  =  Krgija  pakga. 

V=  „  *  or  Vadi. 


When  the  lunar  month « 
nearly  covers  the 
Solar  month  of 

Kartika  or  Phalguna 
'AgrahSyaija  or  Magha 
Pauga 


Length  of  the  lunar  month. 
Minimum  Maximum 

ah  ah 


29  9.7  29  18.0 

29  10.5  29  18.8 

29  10.8  29  19.1 


Comparing  the  above  limits  with  the  actual  lengths 
of  months  stated  before,  it  is  found  that  the  minimum 
length  of  the  lunar  month  falls  short  of  all  the  solar 
months  except  Pau$a.  So  a  malam&sa  or  intercalary 
month  is  possible  in  all  the  months  except  the  mohtb  ' 
of  Pau^a  only. 


250 


BEPOBT  OF  THE  C ADEN DAB  BEFOBM  COMMITTEE 


The  maximum  duration  of  a  lunar  month,  on  the 
other  hftnd,  exceeds  the  lengths  of  the  solar  months 
only  in  case  of  solar  AgrahayaQO,  Pauga  and  Magha.  So 
a  kgaya  month  is  possible  only  in  these  three  months. 

A  list  is  given  below  showing  the  actual  intercalary 
months  occurring. during  the  period  Saka  1823  (1901-2 
A.  D.  )  to  Saka  1918  (1996-97  A.  D. )  on  the  basis  of 
Surya  Siddhanta  calculations. 

Table  21. 

Intercalary  months  in  the  present  century 


£aka 

f?aka 

1823 

^ravana 

1872 

Agadha 

1826 

Jyaigtha 

1875 

Vaisakha 

1828 

Caitra 

1877 

Bhadra 

1831 

/ 

Sravapa 

1880 

^ravaija 

1834 

Agadha 

1883 

Jyaigfha 

1837 

Vaisakha 

1885* 

Asvina,  Caitra 

1839 

Bhadra 

1888 

Sravana 

1842 

/ 

Sravana 

1891 

Agadha 

1845 

Jyaigtha 

1894 

Vaisakha 

1847 

Caitra 

1896 

Bhadra 

1850 

^ravaija 

1899 

Agadha 

1853 

Agadha 

1902 

Jyaigtha 

1856 

Vaisakha 

1904*  *  Asvina-Phal. 

1858 

Bhadra 

1907 

Sravana 

1861 

i^ravaija 

1910 

Jyaigtha 

1864 

Jyaiflfha 

1913 

Vaisakha 

1866 

Caitra 

1915 

Bhadra 

1869 

Sravana 

1918 

Agadha 

* 

Pauga  is  Kgaya, 

**  Magha  is  Kgaya. 

As  regards  the  kgaya  months  that  occurred  and 
will  be  occurring  during  the  period  from  421  ^aka 
(499-500  A.D.)  to  1885  $aka  (1963"64  A.D.)  a  statement 
is  given  below  showing  all  such  years  mentioning  the 
month  which  is  kgaya  and  also  the  months  which  are 
adhika  in  these  years. .  The  calculations  are  based  on 
Surya  Siddhanta  without  bija  corrections  upto  1500 
A.  D.  and  with  these  corrections  after  that  year. 


Table  22 — K§aya  or  decayed  months 


&aka 

A.D. 

Kgaya  month 

Adhika  months  before 
and  after  the  Kgaya 
month 

448 

626-27 

Pauga 

Kartika,  Phalguna 

467 

545-46 

Pauga 

Kartika,  Phalguna 

486 

564-65 

Asvina,  Phalguna 

532 

610-11 

Margasirga 

Kartika,  Vaisakha 

661 

629-30 

Pauga 

Alvina,  Caitra 

692 

770-71 

Pauga 

Asvina,  Caitra 

814 

892-93 

Margasirga 

Kartika,  Caitra 

838 

911-12 

Pauga 

Asvina,  Caitra 

974 

1062-58 

Pauga 

Asvina,  Caitra 

&aka 

A.D. 

Kgaya  month 

Adhika  month 

1115. 

1193:94 

Pauga 

Asvina,  Caitra 

1180 

1258-59 

Pauga 

Kartika,  Caitra 

1199 

1277-78 

Pauga 

Kartika,  Phalguna 

1218 

1296-97 

Pauga 

Marga.,  Phalguna 

1237 

1315-16 

Margasirga 

Kartika,  Phalguna 

1256 

1334-35 

Eauga 

Asvina,  Phalguna 

1302 

1380-81 

Margasirga 

Kartika,  Vaisakha 

1321 

1399-1400  Pauga 

Kartika,  Caitra 

1397 

1475-76 

Magha 

Asvina,  Phalguna 

1443 

1521-22 

Margasirga 

Kartika,  Vaisakha 

1462 

1540-41 

Pauga 

Asvina,  Caitra 

1603 

1681-82 

Pauga 

Asvina,  Caitra 

1744 

1822-23 

Pauga 

Asvina,  Caitra 

1885 

1963-64 

Pauga 

Asvina,  Caitra 

It 

will  be 

observed  from 

the  above  table  that 

according  to  Surya  Siddhanta  calculations  one  kgaya 
month  occurs  on  average  after  63  years.  But  one 
may  repeat  as  soon  as  after  19  years  and  as  late  as 
after  141  years.  In  rare  cases  they  recur  after  46,  65, 
76  and  122  years. 

Intercalary  months  according  to 
modern  calculations 

The  lunar  calendar  proposed  by  the  Committee  for 
religious  purposes  is  based  on  the  most  up-to-date 
value  of  the  tropical  year  and  the  correct  timings  of 
new-moon.  As  such  the  intercalary  months  according 
to  these  calculations  would  not  always  be  the  same 
as  determined  from  Surya  /Siddtonfa-calculations  and 
shown  above.  The  intercalary  ( mala  or  adhika)  and 
decayed  ( kgaya )  months  according  to  these  calculations 
are  shown  below  for  $aka  years  1877  to  1902. 


Table 

23 — Intercalary  month  according 

to  modern 

calculations. 

^aka 

A.D 

Intercalary 

Month 

$aka 

A.D. 

Intercalary 

Month 

1877 

1955-56 

Bhadra 

1896 

1974-75 

Bhadra 

1880 

1958-59 

Sr  aval?  a 

1899 

1977-78 

Sravana 

1883 

1961-62 

Jyaigtha 

1902 

1980-81 

Jyaigtha 

1885 

1963-64 

Kartika  &  Caitra 
( Agrahayaija  kgaya) 

1888 

1966-67 

Sravaija 

1891 

1969-70 

Agadha 

1894 

1972-73 

Vaisakha 

Proposal  of  the  Committee  about  the  Lunar  Calendar 

According  to  the  Siddhantic  rules,  the  lunar 
calendar  is  pegged  on  to  the  solar  calendar,  and  so 
it  is  the  luni-solar  calendar  with  which  we  are  at 
present  concerned.  It  has  already  been  shown  that 
the  length  of  the  Surya  Siddhanta  year  is  greater  than 
the  year  of  the  seasons  (i.e.,  the  tropical  year)  by 
about  24  minutes.  As  a  result  of  this  the  seasons  have 


istbian:  c&j  tsi*  dar 


fallen  bask  by  about  23  days'  in  aursolkr  calendar. 
The  kinar  calendar/ being  pegged  on  to  the  Siddhantic 
solar  calendar,  has  also  gone  out  of  seasons  by  about 
the  same  period,  and  consequently  religious  festivals 
are  not  being  observed  in .  the  seasons  originally 
intended-. 

The  solar  (sanra)  month  for  the  religious  calendar 

Although  the  Committee  considers  that  the  solar 
year  to  which  the  religious  lunar  calendar  is  to  be 
pegged  on  should  also  start  from  the  V.  E.  day,  it  felt 
that  the  change  would  be  too  violent  ;  with  a  view 
to  avoiding  any  such  great  changes  in  the  present  day 
religious  observances,  it  has  been  considered  expedient 
not  to  introduce  for  sometime  to  'come  any  discon¬ 
tinuity  in  this  system,  but  only  to  stop  further  increase 
of  the  present  error.  The  solar  year  for  the  religious 
calendar  with  Vaifakha  as  its  first  taura  month  should 
now  commence  when  the  tropical  longitude  of  the  sun 
amounts  to  23°  15’.  This  saura  month  will  determine 
the  corresponding  lunar  months  required  for  fixing  the 
dates  of  religious  festivals.  The  lengths  of  such 
months,  which  are  also  fractional,  are  stated  below, 
giving  the  lengths  according  to  the  Surya  Siddh&nta 
calculations  compared  with  the  corresponding  modern 
values. 

Table  24— Lengths  of  Solar  months 
of  the  Religious  Calendar. 

Lengths  of  Months 

Saura  Long,  of  According  to  SUrya  Modern 

Masa  Sun  Siddhanta  Value 

(1960  A.D.) 


Yareakha 

23° 

,  15' — * 

30d  22h  27m 

30d  20h  55m 

Jyaigfha 

53 

15— 

31 

10 

5 

31 

6 

39 

AgBdha 

83 

15— 

31 

15 

28 

31 

10* 

53 

6ravana 

113 

15— 

31 

11 

24 

31 

8 

22 

Bhadrapada 

143 

15— 

31 

0 

27 

30 

23- 

51 

Aevina 

.173 

15— 

30 

10 

36 

30 

11 

51 

Kartika 

203 

ls- 

29 

21 

27 

29 

23 

41 

Margasirgt 

233 

is — 

29 

11 

46 

29 

14 

33 

Fa.u$a 

263 

15 — 

29 

7 

38 

29 

10 

40 

Magha 

293 

15— 

29 

10 

45 

29 

12 

57 

Phalguna 

323 

15— 

29 

19 

41 

29 

20. 

54 

Caitra 

353 

15— 

30 

8 

29 

30 

8 

33 

.365 

6 

13 

365 

5 

49 

The  lengths  of  the  months  according  to  the  Surya 
Siddh&nta  are  the  same  as  shown  earlier,  as  the 
same  month  was  used  by  the  S.  S.  for  both  the 
purposes.  But  the  m^hirn  value  is  different  from 
that  shown  before,  due  to  the  fact  that  a  different 
point  is  taken  here  for  the  beginning  of  months.. 
The  modern  value  is,  however, ,  not  fixed  for  .  all 
times,  but  it  undergoes  slight  variation  as  explained 
previously. 


2g£ 

The  luni-solai  -calendar  by  which  the  religious- 
festivals  are  determined  has  been  pegged  on  to  the 
religious  solar  calendar  starting  from  a  point  23°  IS’ 
abehd  of  the  V.  E,  point.  As  this  religious  solar 
Calendar  is  based  on  the  tropical  year,  the  luni-solar 
calendar  pegged  on  to  it  would  not  go  but  of  the 
s&asons  to  which  they  at  present  conform,  and  so  the 
religious  festivals  would  continue  to  be  observed  in  the 
present  seasons  and  there  would  be  no  further  shifting. 

The  Committee  has  proposed  that  the  luni-solar 
calendar  should  no  longer  be  -used  for  civil  purpose a- 
in  any  part  of  India.  In  its  place  the  unified  solar 
calendar  proposed  by  the  Committee  should  be  used 
uniformly  in  all  parts  of  India  irrespective  of  whether 
the  luni-solar  or  solar  calendar  is  in  vogue  in  any 
particular  part  of. the  country. 

5.8  INDIAN  ERAS 

Whenever  we  wish  to  define  a  date  precisely  we 
have  to  mention  the  year,  generally  current  of  an  era, 
besides  the  month  and  the  particular  day  of  the  month, 
and  the  week-day.  This  enables  an  astronomer,  well- 
versed  in  technical  chronology,  to  place  the  event 
correctly  on  the  time-scale.  In  international  practice 
the  Christian  era  is  used>  which  is  supposed  to  have 
started  from  the  birth-year  of  Jesus  Christ.  But  a» 
mentioned  in  Chapter  II,  it  is  an  extrapolated  era  which 
came  in  use  five  hundred  years  after  the  birth  of  the 
Founder  of  Christianity,  and  its  day  of  starting  may  be 
widely  different  from  the  actual  birthday  of  Christ, 
about  which  there  exists  no  precise  knowledge. 

In  India,  nearly  30  different  eras  were  or  are  •  used 
which  can  be  classified  as  follows  : — 

(1)  Eras  of  foreign  origin,  e.g.,  the  Christian  era, 
the  Hejira  era,  and  the  Tarikh  Ilahi  of  Akber. 

(2)  Eras  of  purely  Indian  origin,  list  given. 

(3)  Hybrid  eras  which  came  into  existence  in  thp 
wake  of  Akber’s  introduction  of  Tarikh  Ilahi. 

Table  27  shows  purely  Indian  eras,  with  their 
starting  years  in  terms  of  the  Christian  era,  the  elapsed 
year  of  the  era*,  the  year-beginning,  solar,  lunar  or 
both  solar  and  the  lunar  as  the  case  may  be,  the  parti¬ 
cular  regions  of  India  where  it  is  current.  Inspite  of 
the  .apparent  diversity  in  the  ages  of  the  ejas,  the, 
methods  of  calendarical  calculations  associated  with 
ea.ch  era  are  almost  identical  ;  to  be  more  accurate., 
only  slightly  different  arid  follojv  the  rules  giyea/iiL 
either  of  the  three  SiddhSntas,  Surya,  ,Afya  arid;. 
Brahma.  The  three  methods  differ  but  slightly. 

j  *  Generally,  but  not  always  the  Indian  eras  have  “elapeed.. 
years”.  Thus  year  1876  of  6aka  era  would  be,  - if  ;  we  .  followed, 
the  western  convention ^year  1877  6aka  (current).' 


C.  R.—40 


BEPOBT  OF  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  OOMMITEE 


252 


The  apparent  antiquity  of  certain  eras,  e.g.,  the 
Kaliyuga  or  the  Saptar$i,  are  however  rather  deceptive, 
for  these  eras  are  not  mentioned  either  in  the  Vedic 
literature  or  even  in  the  Mahabharata  (  a  work  of  the 
4th  to  2nd  century  B.C.  ).  The  best  proof,  however, 
that  no  eras  were  used  in  date-recording  in  ancient 
India  is  obtained  from  "Inscriptions”  which  give  ‘con¬ 
temporary  evidence'  of  the  method  of  date-recording 
in  use  at  the  time  when  the  inscription  was  composed. 

In  India,  the  oldest  inscriptions  so  far  discovered 
and  deciphered  satisfactorily  are  those  of  the  Emperor 
A£oka  (273  to  227  B.C.) ;  for  the  earlier  Indus  valley 
seal  recordings  have  not  yet  beep  deciphered  and  no 
inscriptions  or  seals  which  can  be  referred  to  the  time- 
period  between  2500  B.C.  (time  of  Indus  valley  civili¬ 
zation)  and  250  B.C.  (  time  of  ASoka  )  have  yet  been 
brought  to  light.  ASoka  mentions  in  his  inscriptions 
only  the  number  of  years  elapsed  since  his  coronation. 
No  month,  week-day  or  the  serial  number  of  the  day 
in  the  month  is  mentioned.  A  typical  A&okan  ins¬ 
cription  giving  time  references  is  given  in  §  5.  5. 

Continuous  eras  first_hegan  to  be  used  in  the  re¬ 
cords  of  the  Indo-Scythian  kings  who  reigned  in 
modern  Afghanistan  and  North-Western  India  bet¬ 
ween  100  B.C.  to  100  A.D. 

What  is  then  the  origin  of  the  Kaliyuga  or  Saptar$i 
era  given  in  Table  27  which  go  back  to  thousands  of 
years  before  Christ  ?  We  are  going  to  show  presently 
that  they  are  extrapolated  eras  invented  much  later 
than  the  alleged  starting  year. 

It  is  clear  from  historical  records  that  date-recor¬ 
ding  by  an  era  in  India  started  from  the  time  >  of  the 
Ku$3pa  emperors  and  Saka  satraps  of  Ujjain.  But 
India  cannot  be  singled  out  in  this  respect,  for  none 
of  the  great  nations  of  antiquity,  viz.,  Egypt,  Babylon, 
Assyria  or  later  Greece  and  Rome,  used  a  continuously 
running  era  till  rather  late  in  their  history.  The 
introduction  of  the  era  is  connected  with  the  develop¬ 
ment  of  the  sense  of  ‘History’  which  came  rather  late 
to  all  civilized  nations. 


Critical  Examination  of  Indian  Eras 

Htfe  we  are  examining  critically  the  claims  of  a 
few  eras,  which’Me  supposed  to  date  much  earlier,  e.g., 
the  Kaliyuga  era  wh!2tt  is  commonly  believed  to  have 
been  introduced  in  3102  B.C.,  the  Saptar$i  era,  and 
the  Paiffava-Kala  mentioned  by  Kalhapa,  the  historian 
of  Kashmir,  who  wrote  in  1150  A.D.,  and  supposed  to 
be  dating  from  2449  B.C.,  and  others. 

The  Saptaxgi  era  commoly  known  as  Lokakala  or 
Laukika  Ksla  is  measured  by  centuries  and  has  27  such  - 


centuries  in  the  total  period  of  the  cycle.  Each  cen¬ 
tury  is  named  after  a  nakgatra,  viz.,  Ahirtt,  BharatjH , 
etc  ;  and  the  number 'of  years  within  the  century  is 
generally  mentioned,  so  that  the  number  of  year  of  the 
era  never  exceeds  100.  This  era  was  in  use  in 
Kashmir  and  neighbouring  places.  In  fact  this  era  has 
no  relation  with  the  seven  J?sts  (the  Great  Bear)  in  the 
sky  or  with  any  actual  nak$atra  division.  There  is 
difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  beginning  of  the  era. 
According  to  Vrddha  Garga  and  the  PurSpas  the 
starting  year  of  the  tenth  century  named  after  Magha 
are  3177  B.C.,  477  B.C.  and  2224  A.D.  of  the  different 
cycles,  when  according  to  Varahamihira  the  third 
century  named  Krttika  begins.  The  beginning 
years  of  Varahamihira’s  Magha  century  of  the 
different  cycles  are  however  2477  B.  C.,  224  A.  D. 
and  2924  A.D. 

The  Pgptjava  Kala  or  the  Yudhi§thira  era  started 
from  2449  B.C.  according  to  Varahamihira. 

The  so-called  Yudhi§thira  era  (2449  B.C.)  is  given 
by  Kalhapa,  chronicler  of  Kashmir  (1150  A.D.),  who 
quotes  the  date  from  Vrddha  Garga,  an  astronomer 
whose  time  is  unknown.  This  era  also  does  not  occur 
in  any  inscription  or  any  ancient  treatise  prior  to 
Kalhapa  (1150  A.D.).  Prof.  M.  N.  Saha  has  shown  that 
in  the  Mahabharata  the  Krttikas  are  in  many  places 
taken  as  the  first  of  the  nakjatras  and  are  very  nearly 
coincident  with  the  vernal  equinox.  If  we  calculate 
the  date  of  the  M.Bh.  incidents  on  this  basis,  the  date 
comes  out  to  be  very  nearly  2449  B.C. 

It,  however,  niether  proves  that  the  incidents 
mentioned  in  the  M.Bh.,  if  they  were  actual 
occurrences,  took  place  in  2449  D.C.,  for  the  epic  was, 
not  certainly  put  to  writing  before  400  B.C.  as  we 
know  from  a  verse  already  mentioned  on  p.  226.  It  is 
inconceiveable  to  think  that  the  dates  could  be 
remembered  correctly  for  over  2000  years,  when 
writing  was  in  a  very  primitive  state.  The  astro¬ 
nomical  references  in  the  battle  scenes,  from  which 
certain  writers  very  laboriously  deduce  the  date  of 
these  occurrences,  are  most  probably  later  interpola¬ 
tions,  on  the  supposition  that  the  incidents  occurred 
about  2449  B.C.  There  is  no  inscriptional  record 
regarding  the  use  of  Yudbijthira  era  or  PSpcJavakala. 

(a)  The  Kaliyuga  Era 

It  is  easy  to  show  that  the  Kaliyuga  era  which 
purports  to  date  from  3102  B.C.  is  really  an  extra¬ 
polated  era  just  like  the  Christian  era,  introduced 
long  long  after  the  supposed  year  of  its  beginning. 

It  is  first  Mentioned  by  Aryabhata,  the  great 
istronother  of  ancient  Psjtaliputra,  who  says  that  3600 


INDIAN  CALENDAR 


years  of  the  Kaliyuga  had  passed  when  he  wa?  23 
years  old  which  is  Saka  year  421  (499  A.  D.).  It  is  nc>t 
mentioned  earlier  either  in  books  or  in  inscriptions. 
The  first  mention  of  this  era  in  an  inscription  is  found 
in  the  year  634-35  A.D.,  the  inscription  being  that 
of  king  Pulakesln  II  of  the  CSlukya  dynasty  of 
BfidSml, ,  or  somewhat  earlier  in  a  Jain  treatise.  It 
was  most  probably  an  era  invented  on  astrological 
grounds  just  like  the  era  of  Nabonassar,  by  Sryabha^a 
or  some  other  astronomer,  who  felt  that  the  great 
antiquity  of  Indian  civilization  could  not  be  described 
by  the  eras  then  in  use  (Saka,  Chedi  or  Gupta  era), 
as  they  were  too  recent. 

What  were  these  astrological  grounds  ? 

The  astrological  grounds  were  that  at  the  beginning 
of  the  Kaliyuga,  the  sun,  the  moon  and  the  planets 
were  in  one  zodiacal  sign  near  the  fixed  Siddhantic 
Me§adi  which  according  to  some  authorities  is 
(  Pisdum ,  but  according  to  others  is  180°  from  Citra 
or  a  Virginis.  This  was  probably  a  back  calculation 
based  on  the  then  prevailing  knowledge  of  planetary 
motion,  but  has  now  been  found  to  be  totally  wrong, 
when  recalculated  with  the  aid  of  more  accurate 
modern  data  on  planetary  motion.  We  quote  from 
Ancient  Indian  Chronology,  pp.  35  39  by  Prof.  P.  C. 
Sengupta,  who  has  given  a  full  exposition  of  Burgess’s 
views  on  this  point,  with  recalculations  of  his  own. 


should  also  be  a  total  eclipse  of  the  Sun  ;  but  no  such 
things  happened  at  that  time.  The  beginning  of  the 
Kaliyuga  was  the  midnight  at  TJjjayini  terminating  the 
17th  February  of  8102  B.O.,  according  to  SUrya  Siddhanta 
and  the  ardharatrilca  system  of  Aryabhata’s  astronomy  as 
described  in  the  Khatydakh&dyaka  of  Brahmagupta.  Again 
this  Kaliyuga  is  said  to  have  begun,  according  to  the 
Aryabhattya  from  the  sunrise  at  Lanka  (supposed  to  be  on 
the  equator  and  on  the  same  meridian  with  TJjjain) — from 
the  mean  sunrise  on  the  18th  Feb.,  3102  B.C. 

Now  astronomical  events  of  the  type  described  above 
and  more  specially-the  conjunction  of  the  sun  and  the  moon 
cannot  happen  both  at  midnight  and  at  the  next  mean 
sunrise.  This  shows  that  this  Kaliyuga  had  an  unreal 
beginning. 

The  researches  of  Bailey,  Bentley  and  Burgess  have 
shown  that  a  conjunction  of  all  the  ‘planets’  did  not  happen 
at  the  beginning  of  this  Kaliyuga,  Burgess  rightly 
observes  :  ‘It  seems  hardly  to  admit  of  a  doubt  that  the 
epoch  (the  beginning  of  the  astronomical  Kaliyuga)  was 
arrived  at  by  astronomical  calculation  carried  backward. 

We  also  can  corroborate  the  findings  of  above  research¬ 
ers  in  the  following  way  and  by  using  the  moat  up-to-date 
equations  for  the  planetary  mean  elements. 

Now  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes  from  3102  B.  C. 
to  499  A.D.  or  Aryabhata’s  time  works  out  to  have  been 
=  49°  32'  39".  The  mean  planetary  elements  at  the  beginning 
of  the  Kaliyuga,  i.e.,  17th  Feb.,  3102  B.C.,  TJjjayini  mean 
time  24  hours,  are  worked  out  and  shown  below.  We  have 


Table  25 — Longitudes  of  Planets  at  Kali-beginning. 


Planet 

Mean  Tropical 
longitudes  on 

Feb.  17,  U.M.T. 

24  hrs.,  3102  B.G. 
(Moderns.) 

Longitude  at  the  same 
time  measured  from  the 
Vernal  Equinox  of  499 
A.D.,  i.e.,  Aryabhata’s 
time. 

The  same  as  assumed  in 
the  Ardharatrika  system 
at  the  same  time  as 
before  and  also  at  next 
mean  sunrise. 

Error  in  the  assumption 
of  Aryabhata  and  also  of 
the  modern  SUrya- 
Siddhanta  and  the 

Kharidakhadyaka. 

Sun 

301° 

40' 

9,22" 

351° 

12' 

48" 

0° 

0' 

0" 

+  8° 

47' 

12" 

Moon 

305 

38 

13.81 

355 

10 

53 

0 

0 

0 

+  4 

49 

7 

Moon’s  Apogee 

44 

25 

27.66 

93 

58 

7 

90 

0 

0 

-  3 

58 

7 

Moon’s  Node 

147 

20 

15.05 

196 

52 

54 

180 

0 

0 

-16 

52 

54 

Mercury 

268 

24 

1.65 

317 

56 

41 

0 

0 

0 

+  42 

3 

19 

Venus 

334 

44 

50.25 

24 

17 

29 

0 

0 

0 

-24 

17 

29 

Mars 

290 

2 

54.67 

339 

35 

34 

0 

0 

0 

+  20 

24 

26  ' 

Jupiter 

318 

39 

45.74 

8 

12 

25 

0 

0 

0 

-  8 

12 

25 

Saturn 

-282 

24 

15.07 

331 

56 

54 

0 

0 

0 

+  28 

3 

6 

“ Astronomical  Kaliyuga  an  Astronomical  Fiction” 

At  the  beginning  of  the  astronomical  Kaliyuga,  all  .the 
mean  places  of  the  planete,  viz.,  the  Sun,  Moon,  Mercury, 
Venus,  Mars,  Jupiter  aiill  Saturn,  are  taken  to  have  been  in 
conjunction  at  the  beginning  of  the  Hindu  sphere,  the 
moon’s  apogee  and  her  ascending  node  at  respectively  a 
quarter  circle  and  a  half  circle  ahead  of  the  same  intial 
■  point.  ■  Under  such  a  conjunction  of  all  the  planets,  there 


added  49°  32'  39"  to  these  mean  tropical  longitudes  arrived 
at  from  the  rules  used,  so  as  to  get  the  longitudes  measured 
from  the  vernal  equinox  of  Aryabhata’s  .time. 

Hence  we  see  that  {he  assumed  positions  of  the  mean 
planets  at  the  beginning  of  the  astronomical  Kaliyuga  were 
really  incorrect  and  the'  assumption  was  not  a  reality.  But 
of  what  use  this  assumption  was  in  Aryabhata’s  time,  i.e., 
499  A.D.,  is  now  set  forth  below. 


254 


REPORT  OP  THE  CARENDAB  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


Aryabhata  says  that  when  he  was  23  years  old,  3600 
years  of  Kali  had  elapsed.  According  to  his  Ardharatrika 
system-: 

8600  years1*  1/1200  of  a  Mahayuga  =  1314931.5  days. 

Again  acoording  to  his  Audayika  system  : 

3600  years  =  1/1200  of  a  Mah5yuga  =  1314931.25  days. 

Hence  according  to  both  these  systems  of  astronomy  of 
Aryabhata,  by  counting  3600  years  from  the  beginning  of 
the  astronomical  Kali  epoch,  we  arrive  at  the  date  March 
21,  499  A.D.,  Ujjayini  mean  time,  12  noon.  The  unreality 
•of  the  Kali  epoch  is  also  evident  from  this  finding. 
However,  the  position  of  mean  planets  at  this  time  work 
-out  an  given  in  table  26  below. 


^bout  57  B.  C.  Moreover  a  critical  examination  of 
inscriptions  show  the  following  details  about  this  era. 

The  earliest  mention  of  this  era,  where  it  is 
definitely  connected  with  the  name  of  king  VikraAu- 
ditya  is  found  in  an  inscription  of  One  king  JaikadeVa 
who  ruled  near  Okhamandal  in  the  Kathiawar  States 
The  year  mentioned  is  794  of  Vikrama  era,  i.e.,  737 
A.D.  In  a  subsequent  inscription,  dated  795  V.E.  it 
is  also  called  the  era  of  the  lords  of  Malava.  So  the 
Vikrama  era  and  the  era  of  Malava  lords  are  one  and 
the  same.  Tracing  back,  we  find  the  Malavagaqa  era 
in  use  by  a  family  of  kings  reigning  at  Mandasor, 
Rajputana  between  the  years  461-589  V.E.,  as  feuda- 


Table  26 — Longitudes  of  Planets  at  3600  Kaliyuga  era. 
Date  :  March  21,  499  A.D. — Ujjayini  Mean  Midday. 


Planet 

!  Mean  Long. 

Ardharatrika  ■ 
system. 

Mean  Long. 
Audayika 
system. 

Mean  Long. 
Moderns. 

Error  in  the 

Audayika 

system. 

Sun 

0°  0'  0" 

0°  0'  0" 

359°  42'  5" 

+  17'  55" 

Moon 

280  48  0 

280  48  0 

280  24  52 

+  23  8 

Moon’s  Apogee 

35  42  0 

35  42  0 

35  24  38 

+  17  22 

Moon’s  Node 

352  12  0 

352  12  0 

352  2  26 

+  9  34 

Mercury 

18a  0  0 

186  0  0 

183  9  51 

+  2°  50'  9" 

Venus 

356  24  0 

356  24  0 

356  7  51 

+  16  9 

Mars 

7  12-  0 

7  12  0 

6  52  45 

+  19  15 

Jupiter 

186  0  0 

187  12  0 

187  10  47 

+  1  13 

Saturn 

49  12  0 

49  12  0 

48  21  13 

+  50  47 

It  is  thus  clear  that  the  beginning  of  the  Hindu 
astronomical  Kaliyuga  was  the  result  of  a  back  calculation 
wrong  in  its  data,  and  was  thus  started  wrongly. 

-  It  is  also  established  that  the  astronomical  Kaliyuga- 
reckoning  is  a  pure  astronomical  fiction  created'  for  facilita¬ 
ting  the  Hindu  astronomical  calculations  and  was  .designed 
to  be  correct  only  for  499  A.D.  This  Kali-reckoning 
candot  be  earlier  than  the  date  when  the  Hindu  scientific 
Siddhantas  really  came  into  being.  As  this  conclusion 
cannot  but  be  true,  no  Sanskrit  work  or  epigraphio 
evidences  would  be  forthcoming  as  to  the  use  of  this 
astronomical  Kali-reokoning  prior  to  the  date  499  A.D”. 

(b)  The  Vikrama  Era 

The  Vikrama  Era  is  widely  prevalent  in  Northern 
India,  excepting  Bengal,  and  used  in  inscriptions  from 
the  ninth  century  A.D.  Let  us  probe  into  its  origin. 

In  popular  belief,  the  Vikrama  era  was  started 
by  kiife  Vikramaditya  of  Ujjain  who  is  claimed  to 
have  repelled  aa^attack  on  this  famous  city  by  Saka 
nr  Scythian  hordes  Swout  57  B,  C.  and  founded  an 
nra  to  commemorate  his  great  victory. 

Unfortunately  no  historical  documents  or  inscrip- 
ion$  have  yet  been  discovered  showing  clearly  the 
existence  of  a  king  Vikramaditya  reigning  at  Ujjain 


tories  to  the  Imperial  Guptas  (  319-550  A.D.  ).  They 
call  it  not  only  the  era  of  the  Malava  tribe,  but  also 
alternatively  as  the  Krta  era.  A  number  of  irisfcrip- 
tions  bearing  dates  in  the  Krta  era  have  been  found  in 
Rajasthan,  and  the  earliest  of  them  goes  back  to  the 
year  282  of  the  Krta  era  (The  Nandsa  Yupa  inscription 
described  by  Prof.  Altekar,  Epigraphia  Indica,  Vol. 
XXVII,  p.  225). 

From  these  evidences,  it  has  been  concluded  by 
historians  that  the  earliest  name  so  far  found  of  this 
era  was  Krta.  What  this  means  is  not  clear.  Then 
between  405-542  A.D.,  it  came  to  be  known  as  the 
era  of  the  Malava  tribe  and  was  used  by  the  Verma 
kings  of  Mandasor,  Rajputana,  though  they  were 
feudatories  of  the  Gupta  emperors  (319-550  A.D.).  Its 
association  with  king  Vikrama  is  first  found  in  the 
year  737  A.D,,  nearly  800  years  after  the  supposed 
date  of  king  Vikrama.  Its  use  appears  to  have. 'been 
at  first  confined  to  Kathiawar  and  Rajasthan,  for  the 
whole  of  Northern  India  used  between  320  A.D.  to 
600  A.D.,  the  Gupta  era,  which  fell  into  disuse  with 
the  disappearance  of  the  Gupta  rule  in  550  A.D.  For 
a  time.  Northern  India  used  the  Har$a  era  introdu¬ 
ced  by  the  emperor  Har$a  Vardhana  (606  A.D.),  but 
when  the  Gur  jara-Pratihars,  who  came  from 


INDIA’S’.'CALENDAR 


355 


Rajasthan,  conquered  the  city  of  Kanauj  about  824 
A.D.,  they  brought  the  Vikrama  era  from  their  original 
home,  and  it  became  the  current  era  all  over  northern 
India  except  the  eastern  region,  and  was  used  by  all 
Rajput  dynasties  of  medieval  times. 

The  months  of  the  Vikrama  era  are  all  lunar,  and 
the  first  month  is  Caitra.  The  months  begin  after  the 
full-moon  but  the  year  begins  15  days  after  the  full- 
moon  of  Phalguna,  i.e.  after  the  new-moon  of  CaitTa. 
But  for  astronomical  calculations,  it  is  pegged  on  to  a 
solar  year,  which  starts  on  the  first  of  solar  Vaiktkha, 
theoretically  the  day  after  the  vernal  equinox.  The 
Vikrama  era  is  current  also  in  parts  of  Gujrat,  but 
there  the  year  begins  in  Kartika  and  the  months  are 
■am&ntdy  which  corresponds  to  the'  Macedonian  month 
of  Dios,  and  the  epoch  is  just  six  months  later. 
Thus  the  western  and  northern  varieties  of  the 
Vikrama  era  follow  respectively  the  Macedonian  and 
Babylonian  reckonings  (see  §  3.3),  the  year  of  starting 
is  255  years  later  than  that  of  the  Seleucidean  era. 

The  conclusion  is  that  the  champions  of  the 
Vikrama  era  have  still  to  prove  the  existence  of  king 
Vikrama  of  Ujjain.  Early  inscriptions  show  that  the 
method  of  date-reCording  is  not  typically  Indian  as  in 
the  Sstavshana  inscriptions  but  follow  the  Saka-Ku$aqa 
method,  which  follows  the  contemporary  Graeco- 
Chaldean  method.  It  was  therefore  a  foreign  recko¬ 
ning  introduced  either  by  the  Greeks  or  Sakas,  or 
an  Indian  prince  or  tribe  who  had  imbibed  some 
Graeco-Chaldean  culture,  but  was  adopted  by  the 
Mslava  tribes  who  migrated  from  the  Punjab  to  Rajas¬ 
than  about  the  first  century  B.C.  The  association 
with  a  king  Vikrama  occured  800  years  later,  and  is 
probably  due  to  lapse  of  historical  memory,  for  the 
only  historical  king  Vikramaditya  who  is  knewn  to 
have  crushed  the  &aka  power  in  Ujjain,  was  king 
Candragupta  II  of  the  Gupta  dynasty  (about  395 
A.D.).  Before  this,  the  £aka  dynasty  in  Ujjain  had 
reigned  almost  in  unbroken  sequence  from  about  100 
A.D.  to  395  A.D.,  and  ^had  used  an  era  of  their 
own,  later  known  as  the  ‘Saka’  era.  All  the  Gupta 
emperors  from  Samudragupta,  had  an  “Sditya”  title, 
and  many  of  them  had  the  title  ‘'Vikramaditya’’  so 
that  the  Gupta  age  was  par  excellence  the  age  of 
Vikramadityas.  .But  all  the  Gupta  emperors  use  in 
their  inscriptions  the  family  era  called  the  Guptakala 
which  commemorated  the  foundation  of  Gupta  empire 
<319  A  .IX).  The  association  of  the  Malava  era  with  king 
Vikramaditya,  amLassjgnment  of  king  Vikramaditya 
to  Ujjain,  was  due  tcTefcnfusion  of  historical  memory 
not  infrequent  in  Indian  history.  It  may  be  mentioned 
that  the  Vikrama  era  is  never  used  by  Indian  astro¬ 
nomers  for  their  calendatic  calculations,  for  which 
puapose  the  Saka  era  is  exclusively  used. 


(c)  The  Saka  Bra 

The  Saka  Era  is  the  era  par  excellence  which  has 
been  used  by  Indian  astronomers  all  over  India  in  their 
calculations  since  the  time  of  the  astronomer  Varsha 
mihira  (died  587  A.D.)  and  probably  earlier.  The 
Indian  almanac-makers,  even  now,  use  the  Saka  era 
for  calculations,  and  then  convert  the  calculations  to 
their  own  systems. 

This  era  is  extensively  used  over  the  whole  of  India 
except  in  Tinnevelly  and  part  of  Malabar,  and  is  more 
widely^used  than  any  other  era.  It  is  also  called  Saka 
Kala,  Saka  Bhupa  Kala,  Sakendra  Kala,  and  Salivahana 
Saka  and  also  Saka  Samvat.  Its  years  are  Caitr&di  for 
luni-solar  reckoning  and  Meg&di  for  solar  reckoning. 
In  the  luni-solar  reckoning  the  months  are  purnimantd. 
in  the  North  and  am&ntd,  in  Southern  India.  The 
reckoning  of  the  Saka  era  begins  with  the  vernal  equi¬ 
nox  of  78  A.D.,  and  is  measured  by  expired  years,  so 
the  year  between  the  vernal  equinox  of  78  A.D.  to  that 
of  79  A.D.  is  zero  of  Saka  era.  In  some  pancangas  of 
Southern  India  the  current  year  is  however  seen  to  be 
used  instead  of  the  elapsed  year,  where  the  number  of 
year  of  the  era  is  one  more  than  the  era  in  general  use 

But  we  are  not  yet  sure  about  the  origin  of  this 
era.  It  has  been  traced  back  to  the  Saka  satraps  of 
Ujjain,  from  the  year  52  (130  A.D.)  to  the  end  of  the 
dynasty  about  395  A.D.  But  in  their  own  records, 
they  merely  record  it  as  year  so  and  so,  but  there  is 
not  the  slightest  doubt  that  the  era  used  by  them 
subsequently  became  known  as  the  Saka  era  (ride  l  5.5) 
The  Old  and  the  New  &aka  era. 

The  dates  given  by  different-authorities  about -the 
starting  year  of  the  old  Saka  era  mentioned  in  §  5.5 
vary  from  155  B.G.  to  88  B.G.  as  given  below  : 

Konow  :  88  B.C.  (date  of  death  of  Mithradates  II,  the 
powerful  Parthian  emperor  who  is 
said  to  have  subjugated  the  Sakas). 

Konow  has  proposed  a  number  of  other  dates. 
Jayaswal :  120  B.C.  : 

Herzfeld :  110  B.C.  :  Settlement  of  the  $akas  in 

Seistan  by  Mithradates  II. 
Rapson  :  150  B.C.  :  Establishment  of  the  Saka 

kingdom  of  Seistan. 

Tarn  :  155  B.C.  :  Date  of  settlement  of  the  Saka 

immigrants  in  Seistan  by 
Mithradates  I. 

Recently  Dr.  Van  Lohuizen  de  Leeuw  has  discus¬ 
sed  the  starting  point  of  this  era  in  her  thought-provok¬ 
ing  book  'The  Scythian  Period  of  Indian  History'.  She'has 
rejected  all  the  aT>ove  dates,  and  fixed  up  129  .  BiC.  as 
the  starting  date  of  the  old  &aka  era.  She  identifies  this 
year  as  the  one  in  which  the  Sakas,  descending  from 
the  Trans-Oxus  region,  attacked  the  Parthian  empiw 


256 


REPORT  OS'  THE  "CALENDAR  PEFORM  COMMITTEE 


in  which  the  Parthian  emperor  Phraates  II  was  defea¬ 
ted  and  killed,  and  the  rich  province  of  Bactria  was 
.occupied  by  the  (3akas,  They  founded  an  era  to  com¬ 
memorate  their  victory  ove.r  the  Parthians  which  their 
successors  took  to  India,  as  they  expanded  and  put  an 
end  to  the  Bactrian  Greek  principalities  in  Afghanistan 
and  north-west  Punjab,  She  suggests  that  the  old 
Saka  era  was  also  used  by  the  Kusaqas,  who  were 
after  all  a  Sakish  ruling  tribe,  but  from  the  time  of 
Kanijka  with  hundreds  omitted. 

Dr.  M.  N.  Saha  has  supported  this  theory  in  its 
main  features,  but  he  thinks  that  the  era  was  founded 
in  123  B.C.,  for  he  shows  from  historical  records  that 
the  Sakas  assailed  Bactria  first  in  129  B.C.  and  entered 
into  a  seven  year  conflict  with  the  Parthians,  and 
finally  conquered  Bactria  in  123  B.C.,  when  the  Par¬ 
thian'  emperor  Artabanus  II,  was  defeated  and  killed. 
Probably  the  Sakas  then  founded  their  era.  This  was 
also  called  the  era  of  Azes.  Dr.  Van  Lohuizen  de 
Leeuw  has  accepted  Saha’s  suggestion. 

This  hypothesis,  though  not  finally  settled  appears 
td,  have  a  good  deal  of  probability,  for  the  following 
reasons  : 

Dr.  Saha  points  to  the  fact  that  Indian  classics, 
which  can  be  dated  from  the  third  century  B.C.  to  the 
second  century  A.D.,  mentions  three  races  in  what  is 
modern  Afghanistan  and  N.  W.  India,  viz.,  the  Sakas, 
the  Yavanas,  and  the  Pallavas,  who  attained  to  the 
•status  of  ruling  races.  The  order  in  which  they  are 
mentioned  denotes  correct  chronological  sequence,  for 
they  are  arranged  in  the  order  of  their  chronological 
appearance  in  history,  the  (sakas  being  mentioned  as  a 
subject  race  in  Darius’s  inscription  (518  B.C.).  But 
the  Yavanas  (Greeks)  were  the  first  to  attain  the  status 
of  a>  ruling  race,  from  312  B.C.,  the  date  of  foundation 
of  the  Seleucid  empire,  whose  power  in  the  west  was 
overthrown  by  the  Parthians,  or  Pehlevis  (Pallavas  of 
Indian  classics)  in  248  B.C. 

Both  these  ruling  races  of  Yavanas  and  Pallavas 
used  eras  of  their  own,  viz.,  the  Seleucidean  era  from 
312  B.C.,  and  the  Parthian  era  from  248  B.C.  Did  the 
third  race,  viz.,  the  ^akas  who  were  the  last  to  attain 
status  of  a  ruling  race  ever  use  an  era  of  their  own  ?  It 
would  be  surprising  if  they  did  not,  for  it  became  the 
fashion  ior-  all  races,  who  attained  the  status  of  ruling 
people,  to  have  eras  of  their  own.  The  early  fsakas, 
-as  their  records  were  deeply  influenced  by  their 

neighbours  to  the  west,  viz.,  the  Parthians  who  adopted 
Greek  culture,  and  their  coin-records  show  that  they 
also  adopted  Greek  culture,  and  therefore  most 
probably,  the  GraecorChaldean  method  of  date 
recording. 


The  points  given  in  §  5.5  and  above  may  be 
Summarized  as  follows 

(a)  The  Sakas  starting  from  Central  Asia-  attacked 
the  Parthian  empire  in  129  B.C.,  and  overcame 
Parthian  resistance  by  123  B.C.  It  is  very  probable 
that  they  started  an  era  to  commemorate  their 
accession  to  power  in  Bactria  from  123  B.C.  They  used 
Macedonian  months  and  Graeco-Chaldean  methods  of 
calendaric  calculations  as  prevalent  in  the  Seleucid 
and  Parthian  dominions.  Probably  the  era  was  some¬ 
times  named  after  Azes,  who  was  probably  their  leader. 
But  this  Azes  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  later 
Azes  I  or  Azes  II,  who  reigned  in  Taxila  between  40 
B.C.  and  20  B.C.  Within  the  first  200  years  of  its 
starting,  the  era  was  alternatively  called  the  Azes  era, 

(b)  This  Saka  era  (  known  to  archaeologists  as"  the 
old  Saka  era  )  was  used  by  the  Saka  emperors  and  Saka 
satraps  in  their  Indian  territories,  but  the  time¬ 
reckoning  began  to  be  gradually  influenced  by  Indian 
customs.  They  began  to  use  Indian  months  alter¬ 
natively  with  Macedonian  months  and  Parnimdnta 
months  in  place  of  A rri&nta  months.  During  the  first 
200  years,  the  hundreds  were  sometimes  omitted,  in 
the  use  of  the  era. 

(c)  The  so-called  Kanijka  era  is  nothing  but  the 
old  Saka  era  with  200  omitted. 

(d)  The  Saka  era  was  used  by  the  house  of  Cagtana 
of  Ujjain  with  200  omitted,  but  gradually  they  forgot 
the  origin  of  the  era  and  continued  their  own  reckoning 
without  further  omission  of  hundreds  upto  the  end  of 
the  Saka  satrapal  rule  over  UjjainI  about  395  A.D.  As 
the  early  Indian  astronomers  were  mostly  of  foreign 
origin  {viz.  Sakadvlpi  Brahmaija)  the  astronomical 
reckonings  necessary  for  compiling  the  calendar  were 
carried  out  using  the  Saka  era  and  Graeco-Chaldean 
astronomy.  The  blending  of  Graeco-Chaldean 
astronomy  as  known  about  the  early  years  of  the 
Christian  era  with  older  Indian  calendarical^  features 
formed  the  basis  of  Siddhanta  Jyoti?a.  The  Sskadvlpi 
Brahmins  also  brought  to  India  horoscopic  astrology 
using  the  Saka  era  exclusively  in  horoscopes,  a  custom 
which  has  persisted  to  this  day.  These  facts  explain 
the  pre-eminence  of  the  Saka  era. 

(d)  Other  Eras 

Buddha  Nirvana  Era  : — The  Buddhists  of  Ceylon 
have  been  using  since  the  first  century  B.C.  the 
Buddhist  NirvSija  era,  having  its  era-beginning  in  544 
B.C.  This  era  has  not  however  been  found  in  use  on 
the  Indian  soil,  except  for  a  solitary  instance  in 
an  inscription  of  Alokachalla  Dev  found  at  Gaya 
dated  in  the  year  1813  of  the  Buddhist  NirvSija 


INDIAN  GAUNDAR 


257 


era  =f  1270  A.D.  Most  of  the  antiquarians  however 
put  the  date  of  Nirvaija  in  483  B.C.  The  origin  of 
the  Buddha  Nirvaija  era  used  in  Ceylon  has  not  yet 
been  satisfactorly  explained. 

The  Gupta  Era  : — This  era  was  clearly  1  established 
by  the  founder  of  the  Gupta  dynasty  (Candragupta  I) 
to  commemorate  the  accession  to  imperial  power  of 
his  family,  about  319  A.D.,  and  was  in  vogue  over  the 
whole  of  Northern  India  from  Saurashtra  to  Bengal 
during  the  days  of  their  hegemony  (319  A.D.-550  A.D.). 
After  the  decay  of  their  empire,  the  era  was  continued 
by  their  former  vassals,  the  Maitrakas  of  Vallabhi  and 
was  in  use  in  parts  of  Guzrat  and  Rajputana  up  to 
the  thirteenth  century.  Its  use  in  Bengal  was  discon¬ 
tinued  from  about  510  A.D.  with  the  disappearance 
of  Gupta  rule  first  in  South  Bengal,  then  over  the 
whole  of  Eastern  India.  In  the  Uttar  Pradesh  (ancient 
Madhyade^a),  it  was  driven  out  by  the  Har?a  era, 
which  had  a  short  period  of  existence,  606-824  A.D., 
when  the  city  of  Kanauj  was  occupied  by  king 
Nagabhata  of  the  Pratihar  dynasty,  who  hailed  from 
Rajasthan.  The  Pratihars  brought  with  them  the 
Vikrama  era,  which  had  been  current  in  Rajasthan, 
and  this  became  'the  great  era  of  the  north,  used  by 
all  medieval  Rajput  dynasties,  except  those  belonging 
to  the  eastern  region. 

Eras  in  Eastern  India 

Most  parts  of  Bengal  were  under  the  Gupta 
emperors,  and  used  the  Gupta  era  during  their 
hegemony  (319-510  A.D.).  But  Gupta  rule  disappeared 
as  mentioned  above  from  major  parts  of  Bengal  from 
ca.  51Q  A.D.,  and  the  subsequent  dynasties  including 
the  Psla  emperors  (  750  A.D. — 1150  A.D.  )  usedf  regnal 
years  in  their  inscriptions  for  four  hundred  years  of 
their  rule.  The  Saka  era  in  Bengal  appear  to  ha^e  been 
introduced  by  the  Sena  dynasty  which  replaced  the 
Palas  ;  the  Senas  were  migrants  from  the  south 
(  KarqSta-Kgatriyas  ),  where  they  were  familiar  with 
the  Saka  era,  but  it  was  not  used  in  royal  records 
which  continued  to  use  regnal  years.  The  Vikrama 
Sarhvat  never  became  popular  in  Bengal,  or  Eastern 
India.  After  Mohamedan  conquest,  Bengal  was  left 
without  an  era.  For  official  purposes,  Hejira  was 
used,  but  the  learned  men  used  the  Saka  era,  and  the 
common  people  in  certain  parts  used  a  rough  reckoning, 


called  Pargamti-JLbda,  reckoned  from  the  time  of 
disappearance  of  Hindu  rule. 

After  the  introduction  of  Tarikh  Ilahi,  the  people 
of  Bengal  began  to  use  the  SGrya  Siddhgnta  reckoning, 
and  the  solar  year.  The  Bengali  San  had  thus  a 
hybrid  origin  ;  to  find  the  current  year  of  the  Bengali 
San,  we  take  Hejira  year  ela$ped  in  1556,  i.e.,  963  and 
add  to  it  the  number  of  solar  years.  Thus  1954 
A.  D.  is  963  A.D. +  (1954  — 1556)=1361  of  Bengali  San. 

Other  hybrid  eras 

A  number  of  other  hybrid  eras  formed  in  a  similar 
way  to  Bengali  San  is  mentioned  in  the  table  (No.  27) : 
Xmli  and  Vilayati  in  Bengal  and  Orissa,  the  various 
Fasli  or  harvest  years  in  Bengal,  Deccan,  and 
Bombay. 

All  the  other  eras  mentioned  as  hybrid  in  the 
chart  were  formed  in  a  similar  way,  and  the  slight 
differences  are  due  to  mistakes  in  calculation,  or 
differences  in  the  time  of  introduction.  While  the 
Bengali  San  has  Me§adi  as  year-beginning,  others 
have  taken  the  year-beginning  to  be  coincident  with 
some  important  mythical  event  of  local  provenance, 
e.g.,  the  year-beginning  of  the  Amli  era  used  in 
Orissa,  viz.,  the  12th  lunar  day  of  the  light  half  of  the 
month  of  Bhadra  is  said  to  represent  the  birth  date 
of  king  Indradyumna,  the  mythical  king  who  is  said 
to  have  discovered  the  site  of  modern  Puri.  The 
great  temple  of  Puri  was  actually  built  by  king 
Anyanka  Bhlm  Dev  of  the  Ganga  dynasty  about  1119 
A.D.,  and  kings  of  this  dynasty  who  held  sway  in 
Orissa  from  1035-1400  A.  D.  used  the  Gangs  era. 

The  Kollam  era  prevalent  in  the  Malayalam 
countries  is  of  obscure  origin.  The  year  of  this  era 
is  known  as  the  Kollam  Aijcju-  The  era  is  also  called 
the  Era  of  Parasurama,  and  is  said  to  have  omitted 
thousands  from  their  previous  reckonings.  In  South 
Malabar  it  begins  with  the  solar  month  Simha  and 
in  North  Malabar  with  the  solar  month  KanyS. 
The  era  started  from  825  A.D. 

The  Jovian  cycle  :  In  Southern  India  the  years  are 
named  after  the  name  of  the  Jovian  year  and  so  it  also 
serves  the  purpose  of  an  era  of  a  short  period,  viz.,  60 
years,  after  which  the  years  recur.  Details  about 
Jovian  years  will  be  found  in  Appendix  5-E. 


Table  27. 

Indian  Eras 


C.  258.  .  3 


APPENDIX;  5-A 

The  Season* 


We  have  seasons  because  the  celestial  equator  is  oblique 
to  the  sun's  path  (or  the  ecliptic),  or  in  modern  parlanoe, 
the  axis  of  rotation  of  the  earth  is  not  perpendicular  to  its 
orbit,  but  inclined  at  an  angle  of  66$°.  This  causes  varying 
amounts  of  sunlight  to  fall  on  a  particular  locality  through¬ 
out  the  year.  If  the  earth’s  axis  were  perpendicular  to  the 
ecliptic,  in  other  words  the  obliquity  were  zero,  every 
portion  of  the  earth  from  the  equator  to  the  pole  would 
have  had  12  hours  of  sunlight,  and-  12  hours  of  shade. 
There  would  have  been  no  seasons  on  any  part  of  the  earth, 
just  as  we  have  now  for  plaoes  on  the  earth's  equator,  where 
we  have  no  variation  of  season  throughout  the  year,  because 
the  day  and  night  are  equal  for  all  days  of  the  year. 

It  can  be  proved  from  spherical  trigonometry  that  the 
duration  of  sunlight  for  a  place  haying  the  latitude  0  is . 
given  by 

12+tV  Sin'1  (  tan  <P  tan  8  )  hours, 

where  8  =  declination  of  the  sun  on  that  day;  8  being 

K 

counted  positive  when  it_is  north  of  the  equator,  and 
negative  when  south. 

If  8  is  negative,  i.e.,  when  the  sun  is  south  of  the 
equator,  the  second  term  of  the  above  equation  is  negative, 
and  daylight  will  be  of  less  than  12  hours’  duration. 

This  holds  up  to  the  latitude  of  ~  —  t=  66*°,  i.e.,  the 

A 

beginning  of  the  arctic  zone.  Between  the  arctic  circle 
and  the  north  pole,  the  sun  will  remain  constantly  above 
the  horizon  more  than  twenty-four  hours  for  several  days- 
together  during  the  year.  Thus  at  a  place  on  70°  north 
latitude,  the  continuous  day  is  observed  for  64  days  from 
21st  May  to  24th  July,  at  80°  north  latitude  it  is  for  1.33 
days  from  17th  April  to  28th  August,  at  the  north  pole  it 
is  for  six  months  from  21st  March  to  23rd  September. 

...  For.  a  person  on  the  north  pole,  the.  sun  .will  appear  nn. 
the  horizon  oq  the  vernal  equinox  .  day,  .and  will  go  qxl 
circling  round;  the  sky.  parallel  to  the  horizon  and.  rising 
every  day  a  little  up,  till  on  the  solstitial  day,  die  attains 
the  maximum  altitude,  viz.,  23°  27'.  After  that  the  sun 
will  begin  to  move  down  and  on  the  day  of  autumnal 
equinox,  will  pass  below  the  horizon.  Thus  for  six 
months,  from  21st  March  (V.E.)  there  will  be  continuous 
day  for  a  person  on  the  north  pole,  and  from  the  23rd  Sept. 
(A.B.)  tqr. the  next  21st  March  (V.E.),  there  will  be  a 
continuous  night  fat  six  months. 

The  position  described  "Shove  is  for  the  northern  hemis-  • 
phere,  viz.,  for  those  dwelling  north  of  the  equator.  In  .the 
southern  hemisphere  the  position  is  just  reversed  ;  when 
the  day  is  longer  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  it  is  shorter 
in  the  Southern  hemisphere. 


?he  amount  of  daylight  received  at  any  place  -determines 
the  season.  When  we  have  maximum  sunlight,  we  have 
the  hot  season.  When  we  have  minimum  sunlight,  we  shall 
have  winter.  The  other  seasons  come  in-between.  Bain, 
frost,  etc.,  are  secondary  effects  produced  by  varying 
amounts  of  sunlight,  and  of  the  atmospheric  conditions 
Stimulated  by  the  sunlight  received.  The  sun  is  the  sole 
arbiter  of  the  seasons. 

Hence  the  definitions  of  seasons  as  given  by  the  ancient 
astronomers,  whether  Western  and  Indian,  which  base  them 
on  the  cardinal  days  of  the  year,  are  the  only  correct 
definitions.  A  system  which  deviates  from  this  practice  is 
wrong. 

The  majority  of  the  Indian  calendar  makers  have  not, 
however,  followed  this  definition.  The  reason  is  more 
psychological  than  scientific.  'For  along  with  astronomy, 
there  has  been  also  a  growth  of  astrology  which  has  fixed 
up  its  canons  on  the  basis  of  a  fixed  zodiac  commonly  known 
as  the  Nirayana  system.  The  effect  of  this  will  be  clear 
from  the  following  example. 

The  winter  season  [6iSira)  begins  on  the  winter  solstice 
day  which  date  is  also  marked  in  all  the  Siddhantas  by 
sun’s  entry  ( satnkrcLnti )  into  Makara.  This  event  occurs  on 
the  22nd  December.  But  the  Indian  calendar  makers, 
following  the  nirayana  system,  state  that  the  Makara 
Satnkr&nti  happens  not  on  the  22nd  December  but  on  the 
14th  January  and  the  winter  season  also  begins  on  that 
date.  Similar  is  the  case  with  other  seasons  also.  The  result 
is  that  there  is  a  clear  difference  of  23  days  in  the  reckoning 
of  seasons. .  The  later  Hindu  savants  tried  to  reconcile  the 
two  points  of  view  by  adopting  a  theory  of  trepidation,, 
which  after  Newton’s  explanation  of  precession,  has  been 
definitely  shown  to  be  false.  It  is  therefore  absolutely 
wrong  to  stick  to  the  nirayar^a  system 

It  is  however  refreshing  to  find  that  a  few  Indian 
savants  have  definitely  stood  against  the  false 
system.  The  earliest  were  Munjala  Bhafa  (932  A.\D.),  a 
South  Indian  astronomer  and  Ppthudaka  SvSmi  (9SOA.D.), 
who  observed  at  Kuruk$etra.  One  of  the  latest  was  Mm. 
Bapudev  Sastri,  0.  I.  E.,  Professor  in  the  Sanskrit  College, 
Banaras,  who  wrote  in  1862,  as  follows  : 

“Since  the  nirayaija  safnkrantis  cannot  be  determined 
with  precision  and  without  doubt  and  since  the  niruyat)A 
rSSis  have  no  bearing  on  the  ecliptic  and  its  northern  and 
southern  halves,  we  must  not  hanker  after  nirayat, M  system 
for  the  purposes  of  our  religious  and  other  rites.  We  must 
accept  sdyana  and  our  religious  and  other  rites  should  be 
performed  in  accordance  with  the  sayana  system”. 


C.  B. -41 


260 


REPORT  OP  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


It  is  not  generally  known  that  another  great  man  who 
probably  felt  that  the  nirayaqa  system  gave  us  wrong 
seasons,  was  Pandit  Ishwar  Chandra  Vidyasagar.  We 
learn  from  his  biography  that  he  had  a  course  in  Indian 
astronomy  while  he  was  a  student  of  the  Sanskrit  College, 
Calcutta  about  1840.  Before  him,  the  Vasanta  or  Spring 
consisted  of  the  months  Madhu  and  Madhava,  i.e.,  Gaitra 
and  VaiSakha,  as  in,  other  parts  of  India.  But  from  1850, 
Vidyasagar  began  to  bring  out  text  books  in  Bengali  in 
which  he  retarded  the  seasons  by  a  month,  e.g.,  he  said  that 
the  spring  consists  of  Ph&lguna  and  Caitra,  and  no  one 
■questioned  it.  So  in  Bengal,  as  far  as  popular  notion  goes, 
Vasanta  season  starts  on  Feb.  12,  while  in  other  parts  it 
starts  on  March  14,  a  month  later,  -  while  the  correct 
astronomical  date  according  to  Hindu.  Siddhantas  is  Feb.  19. 
Bengal  thus  commits  a  negative  mistake  of  7  days  while 
other  parts  of  India,  has  a  positive  mistake  of  23  days. 

The  position  in  respect  of  all  the  seasons  is  stated 
below  : 

Sun’s  longitude  Correct  date  Present  date 

Vasanta  ( — )  30°  to  30°  Feb.  19  to  Apr.  19  Mar.  14  to  May  13 
(Spring) 

Cfri?ma  30°  to  90°  Apr.  20~to  June  20  May  14  to  July  15 
(Summer) 

Van *5  90°  to  150°  June  21  to  Aug.  22  July  16  to  Sep.  15 

(Rains) 

f^arat  150°  to  210°  Aug.  23  to  Oct.  22  Sep.  16  to  Nov.  15 
("Autumn) 

Hemanta  210°  to  270°  Oct.  23  to  Dec.  21  Nov.  16  to  Jan.  12 
(Late  Autumn) 

&&ra  270°  to  330°  Dec.  22  to  Feb.  18  .  Jan.  13  to  Mar.  14 
(^Winter) 


The  figures  in  the  third  oolumn  of  the  table  below  denote 
the  angular  distance  of  the  sun  from  the  astronomical  first 
point  of  Aries  (the  V.E.  point)  indicating  the  beginning  of 
the  month. 

The  two  months  constituting  the  'Spring  Season’  would 
thus  include  the  day  from  Feb.  19  or  20  to  April  19  or  20. 
The  Vernal  Equinox  day  (March  21)  would  be  just  in  the 
middle.  The  same  is  the  case  with  other  seasons  each  of 
two  montu" 


Table  28. 


Spring 

Madhu 

1  -30° 

Honey  or  sweet  spring  ' 

Madhava 

J  o 

The  sweet  one 

Summer 

$ukra 

1  30 

Illuminating 

$uci 

J  60 

Burning 

Rains 

Nabhas 

1  90 

Cloud 

Nabhasya 

J  120 

Cloudy 

Autumn 

Isa 

1  150 

Moisture 

Urja 

J  180 

Force 

LateAutumn|Sya. 

1  210 

J  240 

Power 

Powerful 

Tapas 

\  270 

Penance,  mortification, 

Winter 

f 

fire 

Tapasya 

J  300 

Pain  (produced  by  heat) 

These  names  were  seldom  used  by  the  common  people, 
but  they  were  very  popular  with  poets. 

The  figures  in  the  second  column  of  table  No.  29 
denote  the  angular  distance  of  the  sun  on  the  ecliptic,  the 
origin  being  the  first  point  of  Aries.  We  have  described 
in  §  4.5  bow  an  idea  of  the  ecliptic  was  derived  from  night 
observations  of  the  sky  and  observation  of  eclipses,  and 
how  it  came  to  be  used  as  a  reference  plane  from  very 
ancient  times. 


In  continuing  to  follow  the  nirayayta  system,  the* Hindu 
calendar  maters  are  under  delusion  that  they  are.  following 
the  path  of  Dharma.  They  are  actually  committing  the 
whole  Hindu  society  to  Adharma. 

The  period  covering  "the  north-ward  journey  of  the  sun 
was  known  in  Indian  astronomy  aa  the  Uttarayaria 
i.e.,  north-ward  passage  and  it  consisted  of  the  Winter, 
Spring  and  Summer.  It  is  the  period  from  winter  solstice 
to  summer  solstice,  and  vice-versa,  the  period  from  summer 
solstice  to  winter  solstice  was  known  as  the  Dak$iijayana, 
i.e.,  southward  passage  and  it  consisted  of  Rains,  Autumn, 
and  Hemanta. 

The  ^james  of  months  given  in  the  second  column  of 
Table  No?  28  are  found  first  in  Taittiriya  SatnhitH,  and  they 
are  tropical,  becauSS^’^hgy  attempt  to  define  the  physical 
characteristics  of  the  months. 

Madhu . means  ‘Honey’  and  the  name  indicates 

that  the  month  was  pleasant  like  honey. 

Midhava. .  .means  ‘Honeylike’  or  ‘Sweet  one’. 

The  names  are  thus  expressive  of  the  pleasantness  of  the 
spring  season. 


The  Indian  definition  of  the  seasons,  though  was  based 
on  the  cardinal  days,  was  different  from  the  definition  of  the 
Westerners  who  divided  the  year  into  four  seasons  each  of 
three  months  Winter,  Spring,  Summer  and  Autumn,  starting 
from  the  four  cardinal  days.  The  ancient  Indians  divided 
the  year  into  six  seasons  each  of  two  months  as  given  in 
the  table  below.  The  spring  season  did  not  start  with  the 
vernal  equinox,  as  already  stated  but  a  month  earlier  and  it 
was  extended  a  month  later,  and  so  for  every  season. 


Table  29. 

Indian  Seasons  Tropical  Month-names 


Spring  (-30°  to  30°) 
Summer  (30°  to  90°) 
Rains  (90°  to  150°) 
Autumn  (150?  to  210°) 
Late  Autumn 

(210?  to  270°) 
Winter  (270°  to  330°) 


Madhu  &  Midhava 
Sukra  &  fsuci 
Nabhas  &  Nabhaaya 
La  &  Frja 

Sahas  &  Sahasya 
Tapas  &  Tapasya 


Lunar  Month-names 

Caitra-Vai&Ucha 

Jyaietha-Ae&Jha 

f^rivapa-BhSdra 

Asvina-Kirtika 

Agrahiyapa-Paupa 

M&gha-Phfilguna 


The  early  Greek  astronomers  have  left  records  about 
their  successive  attempts  to  measure  the  length  of  the  year 


INDIAN  CALENDAR 


261 


correotly.  It  is  now  known  that  they  all  used  the  gnomon. 
Measures  of  the  length  of  the  different  seasons  and  of  the 
year  by  some  of  their  eminent  astronomers  are  given  in  the 
table  (No.  30)  below. 

The  Chaldeans  must  have  also  measured  the  length;  of 
the  year  by  the  same  method,  either  somewhat  earlier  or 
simultaneously  with  the  early  Greeks,  but  their  names, 
excepting  those  of  a  few  have  not  survived.  But  if  in 
reality,  the  nineteen-year  cycle  was  of  as  early  as  747  B.C., 
they  must  have  arrived  at  a  correct  length  of  the  year  much 
earlier  than  any  other  nation. 

The  Length  of  the  Seasons  :  The  lengths  of  seasons  were 
found  exactly  in  the  same  way  as  in  the  case  of  the 
year,  e.g.,  in  the  case  of  Spring,  by  counting  the  number  of 
days  from  the  day  next  to  the  vernal  equinox  day  to  the 
summer  solstice  day.  The  number  would  he  Variable  from 
year  to  year,  but  a  correct  value  was  found  by  taking  the 
observations  for  a  number  of  years  and  taking  the  mean. 
The  lengths  obtained  by  early  astronomers  are  : 


Table  30. 


Spring 

Summer 

Autumn 

Winter 

Total 

days 

days 

days 

days 

days 

Chaldean 

94.50 

92.73 

88.59 

,  89.44 

365.26 

Euctemon  (432  B.C.) 

93. 

90 

90 

92 

365 

Calippos  (370  B.C.) 

94 

92 

89 

90 

365 

Correct  values 
for  1384  B.C.  ... 

94.09 

91.29 

88.58 

91.29 

365.25 

The  ancients  early  discovered  that  the  seasons  were  of 
unequal  length,  but  they  were  ignorant  of  the  physical 
reasons.  These  exact  definitions  of  seasons,  both  in  India 
and  in  the  West,  were  arrived  at  very  early,  and  are  very 
important  for  accurate  calendar-making  ;  hut  the  true 
meaning  of  these  definitions  were  forgotten  in  the  succeed¬ 
ing  periods  in  India. 

In  European  astronomy,  which  is  derived  from  Graeco- 
Chaldean  astronomy,  we  have  :  , 

Spring  0° —  90°  from  V.E.  to  S.S. 

Summer  90° — 180°  *  S.S.  to  A*E. 

Autumn  180° — 270°  ”  A.E.  to  W.S. 

Winter  270°— 360°  ”  W.S.  to  V.E. 

According  to  this  scheme,  the  Rainy  season  consisting 
of  months  of  Nabhas  and  fNabhasya  formally  set  in  when 


the  sun  orossed  the  summer  solstice  (June  22),  as  is  evident 
from  the  lines  in  KalidSsa’s  MeghadCta  or  Cloud-Messenger. 

'  Pratyaaanne  Nabhasi  dayitajivitS  lambanarthi 
Jimutena  svakusalamayim  harayijyan  pravfttim. 

Translation  :  When  the  month  of  Nabhas  was  imminent, 
l  just  marking  the  onset  of  monsoon  ),  etc.” 

Or  in  the  Ramayatya,  Ayodhyakai}4a 

Udaggatva-abhyupabptte  paretaoaritam  dream 
Abjnvana  disab  sarvalj  snigdha  dadf&te  ghanSlj. 

Translation  :  When  the  sun  just  reversed  its  motion  after 
going  (continuously)  to  the  north,  and  began  to  proceed  in 
the  direction  inhabited  by  departed  Bouls  (dakjipayfcna),  the 
whole  sky  was  overcast  with  clouds  (i.e.,  the  monsoon  set 
in) ; . 

Winter  solstice  set  in  with  the  month  of  Tapas,  which 
means  penance.  The  winter  solstice  as  mentioned  above 
Was  the  time  from  which  the  yearly  sacrifices  started. 

The  month  names  in  the  last  column  of  table  (No.  29) 
are  ‘lunar’,  but  they  were  linked  to  the  solar  months.  They 
are  now  in  universal  use  all  over  India  to  denote 
solar  as  well  as  lunar  months  ;  but  the  two  varieties  are 
distinguished  by  the  adjectives  ‘Solar’  or  ‘Lunar’. 

Both  the  European  and  Indian  definitions  of  seasons 
are  scientific  as  they  are  based  on  the  cardinal  days.  The 
difference  in  nomenclature  is  trivial. 

The  Length  of  the  Year  :  The  length  of  the  year,  as 
mentioned  earlier,  must  have  been  found  by  counting  the 
number  of  days  from  one  equinox  to  another,  or  one  solstice 
to  another. 

In  actual  practice,  the  number  of  days  of  the  year, 
counted  in  this  way  would  vary  between  366  and  866.  In 
the  early  stages,  the  length  of  the  year  was  whole-numbered, 
but  Indians  of  Vedanga  Jyotiga  period  had  a  year  of;366 
days.  Later  when  they  came  to  a  rigorous  definition  of  the 
year,  they  realized  that  the  number  of  days  was  not  whole, 
but  involved  fractions..  Probably  the  attempt  at  determin¬ 
ing  the  exact  length  of  the  year  involving  fractional 
numbers  was  obtained  by  adding  up  the  lengths  for  a 
number  of  years,  and  taking  the  mean. 


APPENDIX  5-B 

The  Zero-point  of  the  Hindu  Zodiac 


The  Zero-point  of  the  Hindu  Zodiac  :  By  this  is  meant 
the  Vernal  Equinoctial  Point  (first  point  of  Aries)  at  the 
time  when  the  Hindu  savants  switched  on  .  from  the  old 
Ved&iiga-Jyotiga  calendar  to  the  SiddhSntio  calendar  (let 
us  call  this  the  epoch  of  the  Siddhanta- Jyoti^a  or  S.  J.). 
There-  is  a  wide  spread  belief  that  a  definite  location  can  be 
found  for  this  point  from  the  data  given  in  the  Surya- 
Siddhanta  and  other  standard  treatises.  This  impression  is 
however  wrong. 

Its  location  has  to  be  inferred  from  the  00-ordinates 
given  for  known  stars  in  Chap.  VIII  of  the  Sflryd  Siddhanta. 
From  these.data  Dlkijit  thought  that  he  had  proved  that  it 
was  very  close  to  Bevatl  ((  Piscium) ;  but  another  school 
thinks  that  the  autumnal  equinoctial  point  (first  point  of 
Libra)  at  this  epoch  was  very  close  to  the  star  Gitrd  (Spica, 

<  Virginis),  and  therefore  the  first  point  of  Aries  at  the 
epoch  of  S.J  was  180°  -behind  thiB  point.  The  celestial 
longitude  in  1950  of  (  Piseium  was  19°  10'  39"  and  at 

<  Virginis  was  303°  p'  36  ".  The- longitudes  of  the  first 
Point  of  Aries,  according  to-  the  two  schools  therefore 
differ  by  23°  9  ( — )  19°  11  *■'  3°  58"  and  they  cannot  be 
identical  Bevatl  or  C  Piscium  was  closest  to  V0  (the  V.E. 
point)  about  575  A.D.,  and  GitrS,  or  <  Virginis  was  closest 
to  (the  A.E.  point)  about  285  A.D.,  a  clear  difference 
of  290  years.  - 

Thus  even  those  who  uphold  the  nirayana  school  are 
not  agreed  amongst  themselves  regarding  the  exact  location 
bf  the-  Vefhal"  point  in  the  age -of-  the  -  SStryd-Siddhanta 
and  thengh  they  talk  of  the  Sindh  aero-peint,  they  do 
not  know  where  it  is.  Still  such  is  the  intoxication 
for  partisanship  that  for  50  yews,  a  wordy  wkrtaxo 
■regarding  the  adoptionof  -either  erf  these  two  points  as  .the 
zero-point  of  the  Hindu  zodiac  has  gone  en  betwdSn  the 
two  -rival  faotions  known  respectively  as-  the-  Rwatt-Pahja 
and  Oitr&-Pak$a,  but  as  we  sball  show  the  different  parties 
-are  simply  beating  about  the  bush  for  nothing. 

Chapter  VIII  of  the  S.S  gives  a  table  of  the  celestial  co¬ 
ordinates  (Dhruvaka  and  Vtkqepa)  of  the  junction-stars 
(identifying  stars)  of  27  asterisms  forming  the  Hindu  lunar 
zodiac.  It  is. agreed '  by  all  that  these  co-ordinates  •  must 


have  been  given  taking  the  position  of  the  V.E.  point  at  the 
Observer’s  time  as  the  fiducial  point;  It  is  possible  to 
locate  it,  as  ‘  Burgess  had  shown  in  bis  edition  of  the  8.S.,  if 
with  the  aid  of  the  data  given,  X,  i.e.,  celestial  longitude  of 
the  junction-stars  in  the  epoch  of  S.J.  is  calculated,  and 
compare  it  with  the  X  of  the  same  stars  for  -1950.  Let  the 
two  values  of  X  be  denoted  by  Xx  and  Xa,  Xx  being  the  value 
at  the  epoch  of  S,  J„  Xt  for  the  year  1950.  ThenXa~Xx 
should  have  a  constant  value,  which  is  the  celestial 
longitude  of  the  V.E.  point  at  the  epoch  of  the  S.J.  on  the 
assumption  that  they  refer  to  observations  at  a:  definite 
point  of  time.  The  following  is  a  short  exposition  ctf 
-Burgess’s  calculations. 

The  S.S.  gives  the  position  of  the  junction-stars  in 
terms  of  Dhruvaka  and  Vikfepa;  two  co-ordinates  peculiar 
to  SUrya- Siddhanta.  Their  meaning  and  relation  to  the’ 
usually  adopted  co-ordinates  .is  illustrated  by  means  of 
fig.  27  and  for  convenience;  of  the  reader,  the  ^standard 


Fig.  27  . 


designations,  symbolisms  used  for  the  different  systems  of 
celestial  co-ordinates  along  with  their  Hindu  equivalent* 
are  shown  in  the  table  below  : 


Table  31-^Siddhantio  designation  of  celestial  co-ordinates. 


Coordinate 

Hindu 

Symbol 

Figure 

Bemarks 

Designation 

- 

Celestial  longitude 

Bhoga 

X 

rc 

As  in  Surya  Siddhanta 

Celestial  latitude 

$ara 

/3 

cs 

Used  by  BhSskara 

Bight  Asoension 

Vijuvamsa 

a 

tq 

Modern 

Declination 

ErSnti 

8 

QS 

.  As  in  Surya  Siddhanta 

Polar  longitude 

Dhruvaka 

.  1 

TB 

Polar  latitude 

Viifepa 

d 

BS 

INDIAN  .OAJSBNflAB  »3" 


With  the  aid  of  spherical  trigonometry,  the  following 
relations  may  be  deduced  : — 

sin  j8  =  sin  d  sin  B  ....... ...... .....(l) 

sin  (X— Z)=tan  j8  cot  B  \  in) 

or  tan  (A  —  i)  =  tan  d  cos  B  ) 
where,  oot  B—ooa  l  tan  t  .. . •  •  (3) 

The  abjective  is  to  deduce  the  values  of  X  and  )3  of  a 
star  whose  l,  d  are  to'  be  found  from  Chap.  VIII  of  S.S. 
As  the  formulae  show,  the  key  angle  is  B,  which  is  deter¬ 
mined  with  the  aid  of  relation  (3).  Then  (l)  gives  us  8 
and  (2)  gites  us  X—  I,  So  X  and  /3  for  the  star  are  found. 

.  Proceeding  in  this  way,  Burgess  calculated  •  the  values 
of  X  and  /3  of  the  junction-stars  given  in  the  S.S.  We  have 
checked  these  calculations.  These  are  .reproduced  in  table 
Na  32  on  pp.  264-66  in  which  : 


certain.  The  values  of  X#— Xj.  are  in  three  groups  as 

follows  : 

No 

Group  1 . 2 

8 

9 

14 

Group  2..  .. 1  . . 21  16  'l 


3  .... 

. ,.20 

10 

4  .... 

........20 

57 

10  . 

. . 20 

8 

12  .... 

. 20 

47 

21  .- 

. 21 

18 

24  .... 

. 21 

2 

Group  3.... . 7  . . ...19  40  V 

18  18  58  . 

20  . . .,..19  14  .  h  19°  9' 

22  ....18  34  . 

27  19  21 


Column  1  gives  us  the  serial  no.  of  the  naksatra. 

*  2  ”  ”  their  names. 

■»  3  "  "  the  name'  of  the  junction  star  as 

accepted  (  see  however  later 
..  remarks),  ■. 

”  4  ”  ”  the  magnitude  of  the  star. 

”  5  ”  ”  the  celestial  ‘  longitude  of  the  star 

in  1950  from  data  given  in  a 
—modern  Bphemeris. 

6  ”  ”  the  celestial  latitude  of  the  star. 

”  7  ”  ”  the  dhruvaka  or'  polar  longitude 

•  \  as  given  in  S.S.  • 

"  8.  ’’  ”  vikjepa  or  polar  latitude  as  given 

'  .  in  S.S.  . 

9  ”  ,  ''  ’’  the.  celestial  longitude  ofjunctioa 

star  from  the  data  given  in  the  , _ 

&.S.  converted  with  the  aid  of . 

•  the  formula  mentioned  above, 

*  10  ”  ”  celestial  latitudo  similarly  conver- 

;.\L_  '•  tied  frogr  data  gift®  in  SkS. 

”  pi  ”  ”■  the  difference-in  celestial  longitude 

■  >'  of  the  star  for  1950  ovens  that 

for  the  time  of  S3. 

”  12..  .”  •  •  ’  the  diffeianoe-  between'  lati- 

tudes. 

—  Brig  evident  that  g— #'  ought  to  be  zero  for  all  stare, 
which  is  however  not  the  fact  as  may  be  seen  from  the 
table.  In  the  time  of  the  S.S.,  the  observations  cannot  fee 
1  expected  to  have  been ,  very  precise.  But  yet  we  cannot 
piabahly  hold  that  an  identification  is  correct  .when  the 
difference :  is  too  large.  We- are  therefore  rejecting  all 
identifications  Where  J3  — 0'  exoe"eds  2°.  Probably  these  stars  r 
have  nbt  .'been  correctly  identified  from  the  description 
given  for  them ,  or  ordinates  given  in  the  Surya- 

Siddhanfa  Were  erroneous^  determined  or  wrongly  handed 
down  to  ns.  In  the  case  of  other  stars,  we  find  that  X9 —Xi 
is  16°  47'  (or  10°  52'),  16°  58'  and  26"  18'  for  three  stars. 
We  are,  alBO  rejecting  these  three  identifications.  This 
leaves  ns  with  the  identification  of  16  stars  as  somewhat 


(N.B.  In  giving  the  Dhruvaka  and  Vik$epa,  the  S.S. 
uses  a  unit  called  Liptika,  which  m earns  a  minute  of  arc. 
This  is  traced  to  Greek  “Lepton".  Prof.  R,  V.  Vaidya 
thinks  that  some  of  the  figures  for  asterisms,  as  they  are 
given  by  cryptic  Sanskrit  words,  have  not  been  properly 
interpreted). 

We  are  not  aware  how  the  Hindu  savants  determined 
the  dhrvvakas  and  vik$epas.  It  appears  that  they  had  a 
kind  of  armillary  sphere  with  an  ecliptic  circle  which  they 
used  to  set  to  the  ecliptic  with  the  aid  of  standard  stars 
like  Pujya  (8  Cartcri),  Magha  {<Leonis)  Citra  (<  Pi?gt7$w), 
VisSkha  (<  Libra)  and  Sat&bhigaj'  {kAquarit)  and-Revati 
((  Piscium).  They  could  also  calculate  tho  dhruvaka  and 
vikyepc i  of  a  star  during  the  moment  of  its  transit  over  the 
meridian  of  the  place  of  observation.  They  calculated  the 
datarncriagna:  ^kTi67rri  %s~  tbo  tenth  'IhouSe  in  astrological 
parlour)  for  the  moment  of  transit  from  tables  already 
constructed  for  the  latitude  of  t  lie -observer,  and  tins  dabcema 
lagna  was  the  required  dhruvaka  of  the.  star.  By  using 
two  big  vertical  poies  (i.e.,  gnomons)  situated  in  the  north- 
south  line,  the  zenith,  distance  of  the  star  at  transit  could 
Jbe„  determined  from  which  the  declination  of  the  star  was 
ded#oe(T,  from  the  relation  : 

Declination^ latitude  of  place  minus  zenith  distance. 

Since  Vik$epa  (BS)=  QB~ QB  i.e.,  declination  of  the 
star  minus  declination  of  a  point  B  on  the  ecliptic -[which 
is  sin-1  (sin  l  sin  «)],  the  polar  longitude  (dhruvaka)  and  the 
declination  give  the  vik^epa  which  is  thus  : 

S— sin‘1(sin  l  sin  «) 

Anyhow  the  above  analysis  seems  to  show  that  ■  the 
co-ordinates  of  stars  were  determined  at  different  epochs. 
Firstly  when  T  was  respectively  22°.  21'  ahead  of  the 
present  T ,  secondly  when  it  was  20°  8'  ahead,  and 
thirdly  when  it  was  19  21  ahead.  The  epoobs  come  out 
to  be  840  A.D.,  500  A.D.,  and  560  A.D.,  respectively. 
The  first  epoch  is  ■■  nearly  200  years  from  the  time  of 
Ptolemy,  and  if  it  is  assumed  that  Hindu  astronomers 
.assumed  Citra  (Spica  or  <  Yirginis)  to  occupy  the  first  point 


Star-Positions  of  the  Sarya-Siddhanta 


i -a*  ] 


2E3 


266 


BEPOBT  OF  THE  OAL£ND*B  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


of  Bibra,  the  epooh  comes  out  to  be  285  A.D.,  and  the 
corsesponding  Vernal  point  2°  to  the  west  of  Ptolemy’s. 

f  his  analysis  shows  that  the  Indian  astronomers  had 
arrived  at  the  idea  that  the  equinoctial  point  should  be 
properly  located  with  reference  to  Some  standard  stars  and 
there  were  probably  three  attempts,  one  about  285  A.D., 
the  next  about  500  A.D.,  and  the  last  one  about  570  A,D. 
They  had  not  accepted  the  first  point  given  by  Ptolemy  or 
any  western  astronomer. 

The  compiler  (or  compilers)  of  the  S.S.  was  clearly 
unconscious  of  the  precession  of  equinoxes,  and  while  in  his 
report,  he  made  a  selection  of  these  data,  he  did  hot  perceive 
that  they  were  inconsistent  with  the  idea  of  a  fixed  V.E.  point. 


But  he  did  not  err  on  the  fundamental  'point.  He  had 
clearly  laid  down  that  MegSdi,  i.e.,  the  first  poijqt  of  Aries 
from  whioh  the  year  was  to  be  started  was  to  be  identified 
with  the  vernal  equinoctial  point. 

It  is  to  he  noticed  that  though  the  Uianer  ot  the  H.JSiins 
absorbed  many  of  the  ideas  from  Greek  astronomy  including 
the  use  of  technical  terms  like  hora,  liptika,  kendra ,  etc.,  ha 
did  not  either  blindly  copy  the  Graeco-Chaldean  data.  From 
whichever  source  he  might  have  got  the  ideas,  he  absorbed 
it  cor rectry  and' made  an  attempt  to  fix  up  the  actual  V.E. 
point,  as  required  in  Chaldean  astronomy,  otherwise  his 
zero -point  would  have  been  coincident  with  Ptolemy’s. 
We  have  shown  that  whatever  the  Hindu  zero-point  of  the 
zodiac  might  be,  it  is  not  coincident  with  that  of  Ptolemy. 


APPENDIX  5-C 

Gnomon  Measurements  In  the  Aitareya  Brahmana 


Beferences  to  the  observation  of  the  solstice  are  found 
in  very  early  literature  as  the  following  passage  from  the 
Aitareya  Brahmana  shows- 

'They  perform  the  Ekavimia  day,  the  Viguvan,  in  the 
middle  of  the  year  :  by  this  EkavimSa  day  the  gods  raised 
up  the  sun  towards  the  world  of  heaven  (the  highest  region 
of  the  heavens,  viz.,  the  zenith).  For  this  reason  this  sun 
(as  raised  up)  is  (called)  Ekavimsa,  of  this  Ekavimsa  sun 
(or  the  day),  the  ten  days  before  are  ordained  for  the 
hymns  to  be  chanted  during  the  day  ;  the  ten  days  after 
are  also  ordained  in  the  same  way  ;  in  the  middle  lies  the 
Ekavimsa  established  on  both  sides  in  the  Viraj  (a  period 
of  ten  days).  It  is  certainly  established  in  the  Viraj. 
Therefore  he  going  between  (the  two  periods  of  fo  days) 
ove^  these  worlds,  does  not  waver.’ 

The  gods  were  afraid  of  this  Aditya  (the  sun)  falling 
from  this  World  of  heaven,  (the .  highest  place  "in  the. 
heavens) ;  him  with. ihree  worlds  {diurnal  circles )  -of  heaven, 
(in  the- heavens)  from  below  they  ptopped^up  ;  ^the  Stomas 
are  the  three  worlds  of  heaven  {diurnal  circles  ia  the 
heavens).  They  were  also  afraid  of  his  falling  away 
upward  ;  him  with  three  worlds  of  heaven  (diarnal  circles 
ih  the  heavens)  from  above  they  propped  up  ;  {he  Stoma*- 
are  the  three  worlds  of  heaven  (diurnal  circles^  in  tbs 
heavens)  indeed.  Thus  three  below  are  the  Satft&ikttils 
(seventeen),  three  above  ;  in  the  middle  is  the  JEhavitnia 
on  bo#f  Sides  supported  by  Svarasamans.  Therefore  he 
going  between  tlidiBSnSiVrasamans  over  these  worlds  does 
not  waver’. 

This  obscure  passage  has  been  interpreted .  as  follows 
by  Prof.  P.G.  Sengupta  hi  his  Ancient  Indian  Chronology. 


The  Vedic  year-long  sacrifices  were  begun  in  the  earliest 
times  on  the  day  following  the  winter  solstice.  Hence  the 
VisuvSn  which  means  the  middle  day  of  the  year  was  the 
summer  solstice  day.  The  above  passage  shows  that  the 
sun  Was  observed  by  the  Vedic  Hindus  to  remain  stationary 
i.  e.,  without  any  change  in  the  merdian  zenith  distance 
for  21  days  near  the  Summer  Solstice.  The  argument  was 
this  that  if  the  sun  remained  stationary  for  21  days,  he 
must  have  had  10  days  of  northerly  motion,  10  days  of 
southerly  motion,  and  the  middle  (eleventh)  day  Was 
certainly  the  day  of  the  summer  solstice  ;  ■  hence  the  sun 
going  over  these  worlds,  in  the  interval  between  the  two 
periods  of  10  days  on  either  side,  did  not  ‘waver’.  Thus 
from  a  rough  observation,  the  Vedic  Hindus  could  find  the- 
real  day  of  the  summer  or  winter  solstice. 

The  next  passage  from  the  Aitareya  Brdhmaifa  (not 
quoted)  divides  the  Viraj  of  10  days  thus  :  10  =  6+1  +  3 ; 
-the  first-6  flays  were  set  apart  for  a  §a(Jaha  (sbuJay-)  period, 
followed  by-  an  atir&tra  or-  extra  day- and  then  came  the 
three  days  of  the  three  Stoma* .  or  Svarasamans.  The 
atiratra  days  before  and-  after  the  solstice  day  were 
respectively  styled  Abhijit  and  Viivajit  days.  It  may  thus 
be  inferred  that  the  Vedic  Hindus  by  more  accurate 
observation  found  later  on  that  the  sun  remained  stationary 
at  the  summer  solstice  for  7  and  not  21  days. 

Question  may  now  be  asked  how  could  they  observe  that 
the  sun  remained  stationary  for  21  days  and  not  for 
23,  27,  29,  or  31  days.  This  depended  on  the  degree  of 
accuracy  of  observation  possible  for  the  Vedic  Hindus  by 
their  methods  of  measurement.  They  probably  observed 
the  noon-shadow  of  a  vertical  pole. 


APPENDIX  5-D 

Precession  of  the  Equinoxes  amongst 
Indian  Astronomers 


On  p.  226,  we  have  given  references  to  pre-Siddhantio 
notices  of  the  location  of  the  vernal  point  in  the  sky.  We 
saw  tliat  ancient  Indian  savants  noticed  its  gradual  shift 
(  due  to  precession  ),  but  were  only  puzzled  by  the  pheno¬ 
menon.  Let  us  see  what  was  the  experience  of  the 
Siddhantic  astronomers  in  this  respect. 

Diksit,  in  his  Bh&ratiya  Jyotisastra,  has  summarized  the 
adventures  of  the  idea  of  Precession  of  the  Equinoxes 
amongst  Indian  astronomers  of  the  Siddhanta  period.  The 
following  account  draws  heavily  on  his  Chap.  3  (  p.  326  )  on 
Ayana-Calana,  which  literally  means  ‘the  movement  of  the 
solstitial  points'.  * 

The  ‘Solstitial  points’  were  known  amongst  Indians  as 
‘  Ay  anas’  and'  Siddhantic  astronomers  regarded  them  as 
‘imaginary  planets’  as  they  used  to  do  in  the  case  of  the 
nodes  of  the  lunar  orbit.  Though  the  nomenclature  is  cum¬ 
brous,  the  chapter  actually  deals  with  the  precession  of 
the  equinoxes,  as  this  point  is  90°  behind  the  summer 
solstitial  point. 

Before  the  Siddhantic  period,  the  lunar  calendar  was  of 
primary  importance,  hence  the  exact  fixation  of  the  vernal 
equinoctial  point  (  T0  )  was  not  very  important.  It  became 
important  from  the  time  the  Indian  astronomers  of  the 
Siddhanta  period  first  realized  that  T0  should  form  the 
zero-point  of  the  zodiac  ;  and  made  attempts  at  different 
epochs  (  285  A.D.-600  A.D.  )  to  give  co-ordinates  of  stars 
(Dhruvaka  and  Vik^epa)  with  respect  to  this  as  the  initial 
point.  Chapter  VIII  of  modern  SUrya- Siddhdnta  gives  a 
resume'  of  these  co-ordinates  for  the  junction-stars  of  the 
lunar  asterisms.  Our  analysis  of  these  data  as  given  in 
Appendix  5-B  shows  that  these  co-ordinates  must  have 
been  obtained  by  actual  observations  at  different  epochs,  and 
as  the  compiler  of  the  SUry a- Siddhanta  was  ignorant  of  the 
phenomenon  of  precession  of  the  equinoxes,  he  made  an 
uncritical  selection  of  these  data  compiled  at  different  times 
and  included  them  in  his  Chap.  VIII. 

From  these  data,  it  is  impossible  to  determine  the  exact 
location  of  T0  at  the  time  when  the  SUry  a- Siddhanta  was 
complied.  So  the  wordy  warfare  between  the  upholders  of 
the  Citra-pakga  and  the  Revaii-pak^a  becomes  meaningless 
as  pointed  out  on  p.  262. 

*  The  vjord  ‘Ayana  Calana'  strictly  means  the  movement  of  the 
“Solstitial  Pdints".  BhaskarScarya  uses  the  word  ‘Samp&t- Calana’ 
for  movement  of  the  eqfifocwtiftt  points  (  V  and  £:  ).  Mathematically 
the  two  denominations  are  equrtfclent,  but  it  has  become  the  practice 
in  Hindu  astronomy  to  render  the  term  ‘Precession  of  the  Equinoxes’ 
by  the  words  ‘Ayana  Calana'.  We  Bhall  follow  this  practice  through¬ 
out. 


The  surmise  that  the  early  Siddhantic  astronomers  were 
ignorant  of  the  movement  of  the  equinoxes  is  supported  by 
the  fact  that  neither  of  the  early  eminent  astronomers 
Aryabhata  I  (476 — 523  A.D.)  nor  Lalla  (748  A.D.)  whose 
dates  are  known,  mention  anything  about  precession  of  the 
equinoxes  in  their  writings  which  have  come  down  to  us. 
If  they  derived  their  knowledge  of  astronomy  from  the  West, 
they  followed  the  current  western  practice  of  ignoring  the 
precession.  The  astronomer  Varahamihira,  who  wrote 
about  550  A.D.,  and  has  left  us  a  compendium  of  the  five 
Siddhantas,  makes  no  mention  of  the  phenomenon.  This 
proves  that  the  original  SUrya  SiddK&nta  as  known  to 
Varahamihira  contained  no  reference'  to  the  movement  of 
the  equinoctial  points.  In  his  Bfhat  Satnhita  as  mentioned 
on  p.  226,  Varahamihira,  however,  noted  that  the  solstices 
were  receding  back,  but  he  could  not  say  anything  about  the 
actual  nature  of  the  precession  or  assign  any  rate  to  it. 

But  it  is  obvious  that  once  the  Indian  astronomers 
recognized  T  D  as  the  starting  point  of  the  zodiac,  and  started 
giving  co-ordinates  of  stars  in  terms  of  T0  as  the  starting 
point,  they  could  not  avoid  noticing  the  movement  of  the 
equinoxes,  just  as  it  happened  with  Hipparchos  in  Greece. 
According  to  Brahmagupta  (628  A.D.),  the  first  astronomer 
who  made  a  pointed  reference  to  it  was  one  Vignu  Oandra, 
author  of  the  Vasitfha  Siddhanta  whose  date  is  given  as 
ca.  578  A.D.  He  was  supported  by  one  ^rigena  of  whom 
only  the  name  survives.  For  holding  these  views  these 
astronomers  were  roundly  abused  by  Brahmagupta  whose 
views  on  these  points  appear  to  have  been  confused.  But 
undeterred  by  the  great  prestige  of  Brahmagupta,  later 
astronomers  continued  to  make  references  to  the  movement 
of  the  equinoctial  points. 

We  cite  some  examples. 

Mud j ala  Bha$a,  a  south  Indian  astronomer,  wrote  a 
treatise  called  Laghumanasa  in  854  Saka  or  932  A.D.  A 
later  commentator,  Munisvara,,  ascribes  the  following 
verses  to  him. 

Uttarato  yamyadisam  yamyantattadanu 

saumyadigbhagarii 

parisaratam  gaganasadarii  calanaiii  kincid  bhave- 

dapame.  1. 

Viguvadapakramamapdala-sampate  praci  megadifi 
pascattuladiranayo-rapakramasambhavatL  proktafi.  2. 

.Rasitrayantaresmat  karkadiranukramanmrgadi£ca 

tatra  ca  parama  krantirjinabhagamitatha  tatraiva.  3. 

Nirdig^o-yanasandhiscalanam  tatraiva  sambhavati 
tadbhagapati  kalpe  syu-go-rasa-rasago-’hka-candra 

mitafc.  4. 


C.R.— 42 


268 


REPORT  OF  THE  CALENDAR  REFORM  COMMITTEE 


Translation 

1.  While  the  celestial  bodies  move  in  the  sky  from 
north  to  south  and  again  from  south  to  north,  a  very  small 
variation  takes  place  in  their  declination. 

2.  The  (ascending)  node  in  which  the  celestial  equator 
and  the  ecliptic  intersect  is  the  first  point  of  Aries  (Meqidi), 
and  it  gives  the  ‘East’.  The  second  node  is  the  first  point 
of  Libra  (Tul&di),  and  these  two  points  never  change  their 
decimation  value  (which  is  zero).  _ 

3.  The  first  point  of  Cancer  (Karkddi)  is  at  a  distance 
of  three  signs  (i.e.  90°)  from  it,  and  at  a  distance  of  three 
signs  in  the  reverse  order  is  the  position  of  the  first  point  of 
Capricorn  (Makarddi).  These  give  the  positions  of  maximum 
■declination  which  is  24  degrees. 

4.  The  solstitial  points  (which  mark  the  ay  anas)  show 
a  movement,  and  the  number  of  their  revolutions  in  a  Kalpa 
is  counted  as  199669. 

The  last  passage  recognizes  precessional  motion,  says 
that  it  is  continuous,  apd  give3  the  rate  as  59". 9  per  year. 
Munjala  Bha^a  makes  no  mention  of  trepidation.  He  noticed 
that  the  Ayanas  had  processed  by  about  6°  from  the  position 
given  in  the  Surya-Siddhdnta. 

Prthudaka  Svami  (born  928  A.D.),  an  astronomer  who 
observed  at  Peihowa,  near  Kuruksetra,  commenting  on  a 
passage  of  Brahmagupta  says  : 

“The  revolution  of  Ayana  in  one  Kalpa  is  189411. 

This  is  called  the  Ayana  Yuga". 

This  passage  recognizes  the  continuous  nature  of 
precessional  motion,  and  gives  the  rate  of  precessional 
motion  as  56". 82  seconds  per  year. 

So  far  we  have  no  mention  of  the  'Theory  of  Trepidation.' 
This  is  first  mentioned  in  the  Arya  Siddhanta,  ascribed  to 
Aryabhata  II,  whose  date  is  1028  A.D.  It  says  : 
Ayanagrahadob  krantijyacapam  kendravat  dhanarnam  syat 
Ayanalavastat  samskrta  khetadayana  carapamalagoani.  12. 

Translation  : — Find  the  sine  declination  ( krdntijya )  of 
the  ayanagraha  (in  a  way  similar  to  that  of  the  sun’s 
declination)  ;  from  it  deduce  the  amount  of  declination, 
plus  (north)  or  minus  (south),  which  is  the  amount  of 
ayandfnsa.*  After  applying  this  ayandfnsa- correction  to 
the  planet,  the  values  of  cara  (half  the  difference  between 
the  lengths  of  day  and  night),  declination  of  planets,  lagna 
(the  orient  ecliptic  point),  etc.,  are  to  be  calculated. 

This  has  been  interpreted  as  follows  (Dlkfit,  p.330). 

Tb$  equinox  oscillates  between  ±  24°,  and  the  number  of 
revolutions  of  the  Ayana- planet  in  a  Kalpa  is  578159,  which 
gives  the  period  bf  resolution  as  7472  years  and  the  annual 
rate  of  motion  as  173'T.l£  During  a  quarter  period  viz.,  1868 
years,  the  aymdfnkt,  increases  from  0°  to  24°,  at  first, 
rapidly,  then  gradually  more  slowly  like  the  increase  of 

*  This  is  a  technical  term  used  by  Indian  astronomers  to  denote 
the  distance  of  the  vernal  point  from  the  fixed  Hindu  Zodiac. 


declination  of  the  sun.  Thereafter  it  diminishes  in  like 
manner  and  after  the  lapse  of  3736  years,  i.e.  the  half  period, 
it  again  becomes  zero  and  goes  on  the  other  side.  The  annual 
rate  of  motion,  which  on  the  average  amounts  to  46”. 3 
seconds,  varies  from±  70"’5  to  0“ 

We  now  come  to  a  very  controversial  passage  in  the 
modern  SUrya  Siddhanta,  Chap.  Ill,  verses  9  to  L2. 
These  are  : 

Trirhsat  kptyo  yuge  bhanam  cakram  prak  parilamvate 
tadgunad  bhudinairbhaktat  dyugapat  yadabapyate.  9 
Taddostrighna  da^aptamsa  vtjneya  ayanabhidhab 
tatsamskrtadgrahat  kranticchaya  caradaladikaih 
sphutarii  dyktulyatam  gacchedayane  visuvadvaye.  10 
Prak  cakram  calitarii  hine  chayarkat  karapagate 
antaramsai  rathavrtya  pascacchesaistathadhike.  11 
Evam  vi$uvaticchaya  svadese  ya  dinardhaja 
daksinottara  rekhayarii  sa  tatra  visuvat  prabha.  12 
Translation 

9.  In  an  Age  ( yuga ),  the  circle  of  the  asterisms  (bha) 
falls  back  eastward  thirty  score  of  revolutions.  Of  the 
result  obtained  after  multiplying  the  sum  of  days  (dyugaya) 
by  this  number,  and  dividing  by  the  number  of  natural 
days  in  an  Age, 

10.  Take  the  part  which  determines  the  sine,  multiply 
it  by  three,  and  divide  by  ten  ;  thus  are  found  the  degrees 
called  those  of  the  precession  (ayana).  From  the  longitude 
of  a  planet  as  corrected  by  these  are  to  be  calculated  the 
declination,  shadow,  ascensional  difference  ( caradala)  etc. 

11.  The  circle,  as  thus  corrected,  accords  with  its  ob¬ 
served  place  at  the  solstice  (ayana)  and  at  either  equinox  ;  it 
has  moved  eastward,  when  the  longitude  of  the  sun,  as  obtain¬ 
ed  by  calculation,  is  less  than  that  derived  from  the  shadow. 

12.  By  the  number  of  degrees  of  the  difference  ;  then, 
turning  back,  it  has  moved  westward  by  the  amount  of 
difference,  when  calculated  longitude  is  greater. 

These  verses  occur  in  the  chapter  on  astronomical 
measurements  by  the  gnomon,  and  are  misfits  there  ; 
according  to  all  authorities,  these  verses  did  not  exist  in  the 
original  SUrya-Siddhanta,  but  have  been  extrapolated  there, 
and  have  no  reference  to  the  context  of  the  chapter.  The 
extrapolation  must,  however,  have  taken  place  before  the 
time  of  Bhaskaracarya  II  (1114-1178  A.D.),  because  he 
comments  on  this  passage. 

The  passage  supports  the  theory  of  trepidation  and  says 
that  the  amplitude  of  precessional  oscillation  is  27°  and  the 
period  of  one  complete  oscillation  is  stated  to  be  7200  years. 
The  rate  of  precession  is  given  as  54”  per  year,  which  is 
uniform  and  the  same  throughout  the  oscillation.  These 
stanzas  are  quoted  by  Indian  astrologers  who  are  advocates 
of  the  nirayaiia  system,  in  support  of  their  arguments  for 
sticking  to  the  sidereal  year.  They  say  that  the  present 
ayanafnia  is  about  22°,  and  T.  will  go  on  precessing  for 
another  350  years  till  ayandfri§a  becomes  27°  and  will  then 
turn  back  on  its  return  journey. 


INDIAN  CALENDAR 


269 


This  is  sufficient  argument  to  them  to  turn  down  all 
proposals  for  S&yana  reckoning  taking  the  length  of  the 
year  to  be  tropical. 

We  How  take  the  opinion  of  the  last  great  Indian 
astronomer  Bhaskaracarya  II  (1150  A.D.). 

He  uses  the  term  ‘ Samp&t-Calana'  i.e.,  movement  of  the 
intersection  of  the  ecliptic  and  the  equator,  instead  of  the 
classical  term  Ayana.  He  says  : 

Siddhanta  &ir  omani,  Goladhy&ya, 

GolabandhadhikSra 

Tasya  [viguvatkrantivalayapatasya]  api  calanamasti. 

Ye’ayanacalana  bhagab  prasiddhasta  eva  vilomagasya 

krantipatasya  bhagab 

Translation  : — It  (the  equinox)  has  also  movement. 
What  is  commonly  known  as  the  amount  of  precession 
[ayandfnia)  is  the  same  as  the  longitude  of  the  equinoctial 
point  measured  backwards. 

This  evidently  shows  that  he  regarded  the  change  as  due 
to  the  retrograde  motion  of  the  node  (i.e.  equinoctial  point) 
like  modern  European  astronomers. 

He  criticises  Brahmagupta  for  his  views  on  Ayana 
Galana  and  says  :  “One  can  observe  that  at  the  time  of 
Brahmagupta,  the  Myanafn§a  value  was  very  small  and 
hence  it  is  likely  that  it  could  not  have  come  to  his  notice  ; 
yet  how  is  it  that  he  did  not  take  the  rate  of  revolution  of 
equinoxes  as  given  by  the  SUrya-SiddMnta,  just  as  he  has 
taken  figures  for  rates  in  some  other  cases  on  the  basis  (or 
authority)  of  already  proved  and  accepted  rates’”. 

He  further  says  : 

Ayanacalanam  yaduktam  Munjaladyaib  sa  evfiyam 

(krantipatab) 

tatpakije  tadbhaganab  kalpe  go’ngartu-nanda-go-candrab 

(199669;. 


Atha  ca  ye  va  te  va  bhaganab  bhavantu  yada  ye’msa 

nipunairupa  labhyante  tada  sa  eva  krantipatab. 

Translation  : — “What  MuSjala  and  others  have  mention¬ 
ed  as  'Ayana  Galana’,  is  nothing  but  the  motion  of  this 
equinoctial  point.  According  to  their  view  the  number  of 
revolution  in  a  Kalpa  is  199669  (yielding  annul  rate  of 
59". 9).  Let  whatsoever  be  the  number  of  revolutions, 
whatever  amount  is  obtained  by  expert  observers  is  the 
angle  of  precession  for  that  time.” 

Prom  this  it  is  clear  that  he  recommends  one  to  accept 
the  ayanHinia  which  one  would  actually  get  by  observation 
of  sun’s  place  at  any  particular  time.  DIkgit  says  : 

I  have  not  come  across  single  statement  in  which 
Bhaskaracarya  has  clearly  said  that  equinoctial  point  makes 
a  complete  “circular  revolution”,  nor  does  he  say  that  “it 
does  not  make  it”. 

He  has  taken  1  minute  per  year  as  the  ayana-motion 

and  has  supposed  11°  as  the  ayan&fnSa  in  f^aka  1105.  He 
/ 

thus  means  to  take  Saka  445  as  the  zero-precession  year. 

We  thus  perceive  that  Indian  astronomers  up  to  the  time 
of  Bhaskaracarya  were  as  much  divided  in  their  ideas  .  about 
precesssion  of  the  equinoxes  as  the  contemporary  Arab 
astronomers  of  the  West  (Hispano-Muslim),  and  the  East. 
It  is  only  after  1024  A.D.  that  they  adopted  a  theory  of 
trepidation.  The  earlier-astronomers  like  Muhjala  and 
Pfthudaka  merely  noticed  precession  and  gave  their  own 
rates  for  it.  Bhaskaracarya  is  non-committal  about 
trepidation.  The  Indian  astronomers  do  not  appear  to  have 
been  influenced  by  the  views  of  the  western  astronomers, 
the  earlier  Greeks  or  later  Arabs. 

It  will  be  sheer  stupidity  to  hold  to  the  theory  of 
trepidation  of  equinoxes  270  years  after  it  has  been  definitely 
proved  to  be  wrong.  The  law  of  universal  gravitation  will 
not  be  changed  by  God  Almighty  to  oblige  astrologers. 


APPENDIX  5-E 

The  Jovian  Years 

{Bdrhaspatya  Varga) 


The  sidereal  period  of  Jupiter,  according  to  the  SUrya 
Siddhdnta  is  4332.32  days  which  is  nearly  11.86  sidereal 
years.  Therefore  Jupiter  roughly  stays  for  one  year  in  one 
zodiacal  sign,  if  we  calculate  by  mean  motion. 

This  was  taken  advantage  of  to  devise  a  cycle  of  12 
Jovian  years.  If  we  divide  the  SUrya- Siddhanta  period  by 
12,  we  get  361.026721  days  which  is  taken  as  the  length  of 
a  Jovian  year.  This  is  4.232  days  less  than  the  SUrya 
Sid.dhd.nta  solar  year.  So  if  a  Jovian  year  and  an  ordinary 
solar  year  begin  on  the  same  day,  the  Jovian  year  will 
begin  to  fall  back,  completing  a  complete  retrogression 
65 

in  85  solar  years,  according  to  the  SUrya-Siddhanta. 
65  65 

So  85^—  solar  years  =  86^—  Jovian  years,  and  one  Jovian 
211  211 

65 

year  is  expunged  in  every  85;r—  years.  The  expunged  year 

211 

is  called  the  Kgaya  year.  In  actual  practice,  the  interval 
between  two  expunctions  is  sometimes  85  and  sometimes 
86  years. 

There  was  indeed  at  one  time  a  period  of  12  Jovian 
years,  but  at  some  past  epoch,  a  fivefold  multiple,  a  cycle  of 
60  Jovian  years,  each  with  a  special  name  suffixed  by  the 
word  ‘Samvatsara’,  came  into  use. 

.  The  beginning  of  the  Jovian  years  is  determined  by  the 
entry  of  Jupiter  into  an  Indian  sign  by  mean  motion,  the 
1st,  13th,  25th,  37th  and  49th  years  ’being  marked  by  the 
entry  of  Jupiter  into  the  sign  Kumbha,  and  not  Mega  which 
is  otherwise  the  first  of  the  signs  of  the  Siddhantas.  It 
thus  appears  that  the  system  of  counting  Jovian  years  is  a 
pre-Siddhantic  practice 


The  sixty-year  cycle  is  at  present’in  daily  use  in  Southern 
India  (south  of  Narmada)  where  each  year  (the  solar  year  or 
the  luni-solar  year)  is  named  after  that  of  the  corresponding 
J ovian  year.  The  years  are  counted  there  in  regular  succes¬ 
sion  and  no  safnvatsara  is  expunged.  This  practice  is  being 
followed  since  about  905-06  A.D.  (827  f^aka),  as  a  result  of 
which  the  number  of  North-Indian  Safnvatsara  has  been 
gradually  gaining  over  that  of  the  South  from  that  time. 
The  ^aka  year  1876  (1954-55  A.D.)  is  named  41  Plavanga 
in  the  North  while  in  the  South  it  is  28  Jaya. 


The  following  are  the  names  of  the  different  years  : 


(l)  Prabhava 

(21)  Sarvajit 

(41)  Plavanga 

(2)  Yibhava 

(22)  Sarvadharin 

(42)  Kilaka 

(3)  Isukla 

•  (23)  Virodhin 

(43)  Saumya 

(4)  Pramoda 

(24)  Vikrta 

(44)  Sadharana 

(5)  Prajapati 

(25)  Khara 

(45)  Yirodhakrt 

(6)  Angiras 

(26)  Nandana 

(46)  Paridhavin 

(7)  k3rimukha 

(27)  Yijaya 

(47)  Pramadin 

(8)  Bhava 

(28)  Jaya 

(48)  Ananda 

(9)  Yuvan 

(29)  Manmatha 

(49)  Raksasa 

(10)  Dhatri 

(30)  Durmukha 

(50)  Anala  (Nala) 

(ll)  Isvara 

(31)  Hemalamba 

(51)  Pingala 

(12)  Bahudhanya 

(32)  Vilamba 

(52)  Kalayukta 

(13,)  Pramathin 

(33)  Vikarin 

(53)  Siddharthin 

(14)  Vikrama 

(34)  ^arvari 

(54)  Raudra 

(15)  Yrsa 

(35)  Plava 

(55)  Durmati 

(16)  Chitrabhanu 

(36)  Subhakrt 

(56)  Dundubhi 

(17)  Subhanu 

(37)  fsobhana 

(57)  Rudhirodgarin 

(18)  Tarana 

(38)  Krodhin 

(58)  Raktakfa 

(19)  Parthiva 

(39)  Yisvavasu 

(59)  Krodhana 

(20)  Yyaya 

(40)  Parabhava 

(60)  K$aya  (Akfaya) 

CORRIGENDA  AND  ADDENDA 


Part  A 

page  2,  1st  ool,  line  36,  For  C  §  4'10,  read  0  §  4‘9 

Page  8,  2nd  ool.  line  46,  For  happend,  read  happened 

Page  4,  1st  col.  line  12,  For  was,  read  were 

Page  21,  2nd  col.  No.  36,  Insert  Ceylon  after  Chavakachcheri 

Part  B 


inrayana  ekadasi,  read 
Lak$minarayana  ekadasi 


^aka 

1877 

Page  56, 

A$adha 

9 — For  B 

Page  57, 

Sravapa 

1 — Insert 

» 

2 — Delete 

Page  58, 

Bhadra 

25 — Insert 

» 

26 — Delete 

Tt 

29 — Insert 

n 

30 — Delete 

Page  60, 

Kartika 

5 — Insert 

n 

8 — Insert 

V 

9 — Delete 

ii 

23 — Insert 

Page  61, 

Agrah. 

2 — Insert 

» 

3 — Delete 

n 

7 — Delete 

w 

22 — Insert 

» 

23 — Delete 

Lakgminarayana 


ekadasi 

(Orissa) 


caturdasi  (Bengal  &  Orissa) 


Page  62,  Pausa  4 — Insert  Ravinarayapa  ekadasi 

(Orissa) 

”  6 — Insert  Parana  caturdasi  (Orissa) 

„  19 — Delete  Surupa  dvadasi  (Orissa) 

„  28 — Delete  Guru  pancami  (Orissa) 

Page  63,  Magha  27— Insert  Guru  pancami  (Orissa) 

Page  64,  Phalguna  3 — Delete  Lakfjminarayana  ekadasi 

(Orissa) 

„  26 — Delete  (Orissa)  from  l^anta  ' 

caturthi  (Orissa) 

^aka  1878  '  - 

Page  65,  Caitra  1 — Delete  “&  Sudasa  vrata” 

„  2 — Insert  Lak^minarayana  ekadasi 

(Orissa) 

Page  66,  Vaisakha  1 — Delete  Ravinarayapa  ekadasi 

(Orissa) 

„  10 — ending  moment  of  nak^atra  :  19Mula 

—For  7U  lm  read  7b  31m  (in  some 

books). 

„  30 — For  Laksminarayana  ekadasi 

(Orissa) 

read  Ravinarayapa  ekadasi 

(Orissa) 

Pagb  88,  Ajadha'&i— Insert  Guru  pancami  (Orissa) 

„  27 — Ofelete  Ravinarayapa  ekadasi 

(Orissa) 

Page  69,  ^ravapa  17 — Insert  Madhusrava  (Gujerat) 

18 — Delete  Madhusrava  (Gujerat) 


f$aka  1878 — conU 

Page  70,  Bhadra  18 — Delete  Guru  pancami  (Orissa) 

„  20 — Insert  DnrgSsayani  (Orissa) 

„  21 — Delete  Durgasayani  (Orissa) 

„  24 — Delete  Labjminarayapa  ekadasi 

T  (6kissa) 

Page  72,  Kartika  20 — Insert  Anla  navami  (Orissa) 

„  21: — Delete  Anla  navami  (Orissa) 

„  25 — Delete  “&  Orissa”  from  “Pasana 

caturdasi  (Bengal  &  Orissa)” 

Page  73,  Agrah.  10 — Insert  Dipavali  amavasya  (Orissa) 

„  11 — Delete  Dipavali  amavasya  (Orissa) 

„  and  Insert  Budropavasa 

„  12 — Delete  Budropavasa 

„  25 — Insert  Pasana  caturdasi  (Orissa) 

Page  74,  Pau?a  7 — Delete  Surupa  dvadasi  (Orissa) 

„  16 — Delete  Guru  pancami  (Orissa) 

^aka  1879 

Page  77,  Caitra  21 — Delete  Vignu  damanotsava 

„  22 — Insert  Vi$pu  damanotsava 

„  24 — Delete  Pahguni  uttiram— purpima 

canon  (S.  India) 

Page  88,  Phalguna  18 — Insert  Bahgapahcami 
„  19 — Delete  Bahgapahcami 

Saka  1880 


Page  94, 

Page  97, 

Page  98, 
Page  100, 

Page  101, 


Bhadra  6 — Insert  Balabhadra  puja  (Orissa) 

*„  7 — Delete  Balabhadra  puja  (Orissa) 

„  25 — Insert  Haritali  caturthi 

Agrah.  3 — Delete  “&  Orissa”  from  Parana 

caturdasi  (Bengal  &  Orissa)” 
Pauija  3 — Insert  Pasapa  caturdasi  ( Orissa) 

Phalguna  22 — Delete  ‘‘(Orissa )”  from  “^anta 
„  caturthi  (Orissa)” 

„  29 — Delete  “&  Sudasa  vrata” 

line  5,  'Insert  “ Gadadhara-Paddhati”  after 

Tithitatvam. 


Lunar  Festivals 

Page  102,  Caitra  S  14 — For  Madanabhanji  (  Bengal  & 

Orissa)  (Paraviddha), 

read  Madanabhanji  (Bengal — 
paraviddha  &  Orissa — purvaviddha) 

„  Vaisakha  S  11 — Delete  Laksminarayapa  ekadasi 

(Orissa) 

„  Jyai$tha  S  11 — Delete  Bukmini  vivaha  (Orissa) 

„  Afadha  S  11 — Delete  Bavinarayapa  ekadasi 

(Orissa) 

Page  103,  >Sr&vapa  K  5 — Insert  ‘and  ratrivyapini’  after 

purvaviddha 

„  Bhadra  S  5 — Delete  Guru  pancami  (Orissa) 


Part  C 

Page  157,  1st  col.  line  39,  For  mew-moon  read  new-moon 
Page  191,  2nd  col.  line  17-18,  For  “the  angle  varies  from 
21°59‘  to  24°36‘,”  read  “the  angle  varies  from 
22°35'  to  24°13',” 

Page  201,  2nd  col.  line  19,  For  neccessary,  read  necessary 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


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Alter,  D.  &  CleminshaW,  C.  H.  (1952) — Pictorial  Astronomy, 
New  York. 

Aryabha\lya  of  Aryabhata — translated  with  notes  by 
W.  E.  Clark,  Chicago,  1930. 

American  Ephemeris  '  &  Nautical  Almanac  for  the  years 
1954  and  1955. 

Bachuofer,  Dr.  L.  (1936) — Herrscher  and  Munzen  in 
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—  (1941)  On  Greeks  and  ^akas  in  India,  Journal  of 

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Basak,  Dr.  Badhagovinda  (1950) — Kau^iliya  Arthasastra, 
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Clark,  Walter  Eugene  (1930) — The  Aryabhatiya  of  Arya¬ 
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Couderc,  Paul  (1948) — Le  Calendrier,  Prance. 

Cunningham,  Alexander  (1883) — Book  of  Indian  Eras  with 
■tables'for  calculating  Indian  dates,  Calcutta. 

Debevoise  (1938) — Political  History  of  Parthia. 

Deydier  (1951) — Le  date  de  Kaniska  etc.  Journal  Asiatique, 
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Dtgha  Nikaya  (1890),  Yol.  I,  Pali  Text  Book  Society, 

Difajit,  S.  B.  (1896) — Bharatiya  Jyotisastra  (in  MSrathi). 

Discovery  (1953),  Vol.  XIV,  p.  276,  Norwich  (Eng.). 

Dreyer,  J.L.E.  (1953) — A  History  of  Astronomy  from 
Thales  to  Kepler,  Dover  Publications,  Inc. 

DvivedI,Sudhakara(1925) — The  Surya  Siddhanta,  translation 
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Encyclopaedia  of  Beligion  &  Ethics — Vols.  I,  II  &  III,  New 
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Ginnel,  F.  K.  (1906) — Handbuch  der  Mathematischen  und 
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Jacobi,  Prof.  Hermann  (1892) — The  computation  of  Hindu 
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Keith,  Dr.  Berriedale — The  Veda  of  the  Black  Yajur  School 
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Khap4akhddyaka  of  Brahmagupta — Edited  with  an 

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Konow,  Dr.  Sten  (1929) — Corpus  Inscriptionum  Indicarum, 
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Krogdhal,  Wasleg.  S. — The  Astronomical  Universe,  U.  S.  A. 

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INDEX 


Abbe  liastrofini,  171 
Abd  al-Raiiaman  al-8u£i,  206 
Achelis,  Miss  Elisabeth,  12, 171 
Adar,  179 
Addaru,  175,176 

Adhika  (  =  mala)  month,  7, 247,  250 
Agni,  216  ■ 

Ahargana,  9, 11, 161, 162, 163 
Ahor&tra,  157, 160 

Aitareya'  Brahma^a,  189,1116,  219, 221, 266 
Akber,  1, 159',  214, 251 
Aksaya  tptiya,  18, 19 
Al-BattanT,  2C4, 206, 240  ; 

rate  of  precession.  206 
Alberuni,  198, 204,  237  ; 

Al-Bitruji,  206 

Alexander  of  Macedon,'202, 213, 234, 235 

Al-Fargh&ni,  206 

Almagest,  204, 206, 238, 240 

Aloysius  Lilius,  171 

Altekar,  Prof.,  254 

Al-Zarquali,  206 

Amanta  month,  101, 157, 177, 247 
Ammonia  clock,  12, 159 
Anaximander  of  Miletus,  188, 202  ; 
gnomon,  202 

Ancient  Indian  Chronology,  215, 253^266 
Andau  (inscription),  233 
Antiochus  Sorter,  203 
Antiochus  I,  II  of  Babylon,  228 
Anubis,  Egyptian  god,  164 
Anuvatsara,  225 

Anyanka  Bhlma  Deva  of  Ganga  dynasty,  257 

Aparihpa,  108 

Apaslamba  Samhita,  218 

Aphelion,  242  ;  movement  of,  243 

Apollonius  of  Perga,  203 

irfi  (inscription),  230 

Arachosia,  229, 230  ■ 

Arapyaka,  214 
Archebius  of  Taxila,  230 
Archimedes  of  Syracuse,  203 
Archytas  of  Tarentum,  202 
Ardeshir  I  of  Persia,  232 
Ardharitrika  system,  1, 253, -254 
Ariana,  Herat  regions,  229 
Aries  (zodiacal  sign),  192, 193 
Aries,  first  point  of,  157, 192, 199, 207, 239, 240, 
262, 268 ; 

Hipparcho's,  200,  205,  206  ; 
movessent  of  200,  205, 206  ; 
position  in  different  times.  200  (fig). 
'Ptolemy’s,  200 
Aristarchos  of  Samos,  203 
Armellini,  171 

Armillary  sphere,  199  (fig.),  263 
Arsaces  of  Parthia,  178 
Artabanus  I  of  Parthia,  213 
Artabanus  II  of  Parthia,  256 


Artemidorus  of  Puekalivati,  230 
Arthahustra  of  Katdilya,  235,  236 
Arunodaya,  108 

Afyabha(a  1, 204, 234, 236,  237,  238,  240,  252, 
253, 254, 267 
Aryabhata  II,  238, 268 
Aryabhatiya  of  Aryabhata,  162  238, 253 
Arya  Sangamika,  232 
Ary  a  Siddhanta,  1, 214,251, 268 
Arya  Vasula,  232 
Asokachalla  Deva,  256 
Asoke,  177, 212, 227,  228,  252 
Assouan  papyri,  179 
Astadhyayi,  214 
Astrolatry,  235,  236 

Astrology,  12, 194, 196, 205, 206, 235, 236, 256 
Atkarva  Samhita,  217, 218 
Atharva  Veda ,  214, 217, 218 
Audayika  system,  254 

August  Compte,  French  positivist  philosopher, 
171 

Augustus,  168 

Ayaniimsa,  5,  7, 16, 17, 20, 268, 269  ; 

amount  of  acc.  to  Aryabhata  II,  268 

amount  of  fixed,  16, 17 

(see  also  calendar  for  five  years) 

definition,  268 

rate  of,  7 

rate  of  BhaskaracSrya,  269 
value  6f,  7, 17 
Ayanas,  267, 268, 269 
Azes,  256 

Azes  I,  230, 233,  256 
Azes  II,  230, 233, 256 
Azilises,  230,  £33 


Babylon,  2257226,  228  ;  latitude  of,  225 

Bachhofer,  Dr.  L.,  230,  231, 232 

Badfimi  (inscription),  233, 253 

Bailey,  253 

Balarama,  227 

Banerjee,  late  B.  D.,  212 

Bentley,  253 

Berossus,  Chaldean  priest,  203 
Bharatiya  JyotibTistra,  11, 160, 219, 225, 236, 

267 

BhaskarScarya,  238,  246, 262,  267, 268, 269  ; 

ayana  calana,  269 
Bhasvati  160 
Bhattotpala,  237 
Bhoga  (celestial  longitude),  262 
Bija  (correction),  3 
Box  lid  (inscription),  230 
Brahma,  Creator  in  Hindu  mythology,  223, 
236, 238,299, 240 

Brahmagupta,  223)  237, 238, 240, 253,  267,  268, 
269 

Brahma  Siddhanta,  1,214 


Brahma^as,  193, 214, 221, 241, 245 
Brahmi,  227, 229, 231, 232, 233 
Br.hat  Sarhhita,  226, 267 
Brown,  193 
Buddha,  231, 235 ; 

nirvSpa  of,  256, 257 
views  on  astrology.  235 
Budhagupta,  Gupta  emperor,  234 
Burgess,  Rev.  E.,  238,  253, 262, 263 


Calendar,  defined,  1,  157  ; 
civil,  6  , 

compilation  according  to  S.  S.,  1 ; 
confusion  in  Indian,  10  ; 

Egyptian,  164 ; 

French  revolution,  167 ; 

Fusli,  248  ; 

Gregorian,  1,  3, 11, 170-172  ; 

Hejira,  1, 166, 179, 180, 214  ; 
history  of  reform  movement,  10, 11 ; 
Iranian  (Jelali)  1, 166  167  ; 

Islamic,  179, 180  ; 

Jewish  179  ; 

lunar,  3, 179, 245, 247  ; 

luni  solar,  1,  3, 174,  249, 251 ; 

calendar  in  SiddMntas  245-251 ; . 
of  Babylonians,  Macedonians,  Roma* 
and  the  Jews,  176, 177  ; 
principles  of  174 ; 

SiddhSntic  rules  for  247  ; 

National,  12-14 ; 

Paitamaha  Siddhanta,  223, ; 
problems  of  the,  158, 159  ; 

Reformed,  4  ; 

Religious  7  ; 

Roman,  168 ; 

Seleucid  Babylonian,  229  ; 

Siddhanta  Jyotija  period,  245, 246 
Solar,  1,2, 164-173,245; 

Siddhanta  Jyoti^a  period,  234-245 
Tarikh-i-Jelali,  166, 167 ; 

Tarikh-Ilahi,  1, 214,  251, 257, 258  ; 
Yedanga  Jyotisa,  9,  221, 222, 223  ; 

World,  1,  171-173 

Calendar  of  India,  Reformed  (as  recommended 
by  the  Committee),  41-100  ; 
explanation  of  terms  used,  40 
Calendar  Reform, 

suggestion  received,  5 ; 
summary  of  suggestions,  32-38 
C&likya  Vallabhesvara,  233 
Caliph  Omar,  167, 179 
Calippos,  length  of  season,  175, 261 
Canakya,  213, 235,  236 
Cancer,  first  point  of,  192, 199 
Candragupta,  Maurya,  213, 236, 257 
Candragupta  II,  VikramSditya,  254, 255 
Capricorn,  first  point  of,  192 


INDEX 


275 


Carp,  correction,  268 
OjKdinal  days,  189 
Ordinal  points,  189, 190,  219  ; 

determination  of,  190 
Cajtana,  £aka  Satrap,  233, 256 
Centaarus,l$3 

Central  Station,  3, 4,  7, 14,  40 
Chadwick,  202 

Chaldean  Saros,  184, 185, 186, 202 
Christ,  Jesus,  157,  201 
Chronometer,  167 
Cicero,  205 

Cleostratos  of  Tenedos,  193, ■  202  ‘ 
zodiac,  193, 202 ; 

8-year  cycle  of  intercalation,  202 
Clepsydra,  159, 223, 226 
Committee,  Indian  Calendar  Reform — 
appointment  of,  4 ; 
dissenting  note,  8, 18  ; 
final  recommendations  of  civil,  6,  7  ; 
final  recommendations  of  religious,  7, 8  ; 
members  of,  4 ; 

proceedings  of  the  first  meeting,  9  ; 
proceedings  of  the  second  meeting,  15  ; 
proceedings  of  the  third  meeting,  17  ; 
terms  of  reference.  4 

Committee,  Indian  Ephemeris  and  Nautical 
Almanac,  8 

Committee  meetings,  4,5  ;  resolutions  of  4,  5 
Compline  (cjirieion  of  day),  159  ~ 

Constantine,  Roman  emperor,  170 
Co-ordinate,  celestial,  Siddhantic  designation 
of,  262 

Copernicus,  195, 203, 206, 235 
Oorpus-lrucriptionum  Indicarum,  229 
Cihjjmay  yoga,  108 
Cunningham,  230, 231 
Cycle  of  Indiction,  162 


DakpinSyana,  189, 219, 226, 239, 260 
Dap<ja  ( =  nS$  or  ghafikS),  160 
Darius  I,  Achemenid  emperor,  166, 176, 212, 
256 

Day,  n 

apparent  length  of,  226  ; 
astronomical',  159 ; 
civil,  159  ; 
coanting  of  the 
succession  of,  248 ; 
definition  of,  157,  217  ; 
designation  in  ancient 
time,  183 ; 

division  among  Egyptians,  160  ; 
division  among  Hindus,  160  ; 

Julian,  161, 162 ; 
length  of, “157, 159, 259 ; 
length  at  Babylon,  226  ; 
length  of  longest  and  shortest,  225  ; 
jnqan  solar, 157,  M8JL59. 197  ; 
reckoning  of  13,  14 ; 
saura,  197  ; 
sidereal, 157, 158 ; 
solar,  157 ; 

Starting  of,  1, 5, 7  ; 
sub-divisions  of,  159 ; 

Debevoise,  230 


Decad,  164 
D’  Eglantine,  167 
Declination,  192, 204, 263 
Demetrius,  213 
Democritos  of  Abdera,  202 
Dewai  (inscription),  229 
Dharma  Sindhu,  19, 101 
Dhruva  (celestial  pole),  190, 192 
Dhruvaka  (polar  long.),  192, 262, 263, 267 
of  junctionjstars,  264, 265 
Digha  Nikiiya,  235 

Dikfit,  S.  B.,  11, 19, 160,  212, 219, -223, 224,  225, 
236, 237, 246, 262, 267, 268, 200 
Diopter,  203 

Dios,  Macedonian  month,  179, 229, 255 

Direct  motion,  169, 195 

Discovery,  190 

Durg&$tam!,  108 

Dv&dai&ha,  217 

Earth- 

equatorial  axis  of,  208 ; 
period  of  rotation,  12  ; 
polar  axis  of,  206  ; 
speed  in  a  second,  195  ; 
spinning  of,  208 
Easter,  170, 171 
Eclipses — 

condition  of,  185 ; 
list  of  lunar,  186  ; 
list  of  solar,  187 ; 
periodicity  ©f,  185 ;  , 

recurrence  of.  188 ; 

-saros  cycle,  184-187  ; 

Ecliptic,  158, 181. 191, 192, 197,  198,  207,  250; 
definition  of,  191 ; 
earliest  mention  of,  199  ; 
fixing  of,  191 ; 
plane  of,  192, 207  ; 
pole  of,  192, 208  ; 
obliquity  of,  191, 207,  208, 225 
EkSdasi,  observance  of,  105 
Elements  of  Euclid,  202 
Elliptic  theory,  243 

Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  170,179, 199 

Epagomenai,  164 

EphemerideB,  201 

Ephemerides  Committee,  4, 6 

Epicycle,  203 

EpigeniB,  165 

Epigraphia  Indices,  233, 254 
Equator,  celestial,  191, 192, 197, 207, 239, 259 
Equinoctial  days,  188 
Equinoxes,  188  ; 

autumnal,  189, 192  ; 
oscillation  of,  268  ; 

vernal,  2, 11, 13,  188,  189.  192,206,  253, 
260 

Era, .13, .177, 228^231, 286, 251, 252, 258  ; 

Arali,  244, 257, 258  ; 

Arsacid,  178, 230 ; 

Azes,  232;  266; 

Bengali  San,  257,258 ; 

Buddha  Nirvana.  256-258 ; 

Burmese,  162  ; 

Cthlkya  Vikrama,  258 ; 

Chedi  (KiUcuri),  258 ; 


Era — c»ntd. 

Christian,  170, 251, 258 ; 
current,  251 ; 

Diooletion,  162 ; 
elapsed,  251 ; 

;Fasli,257, 258 ; 

French  Revolution,  167 ; 

Gahgft,  257,  258 ; 

Gupta,  255, 257,258; 

Har?a,  254, 258 ; 

Hejiril,  162, 180, 258 ; 
introduction  of,  177  ; 

Jelali  (Iranian),  162 ; 

Jewish  era  of  Creation,  179  ; 

Jezdegerd  (Persian),  162 ; 

KalSchuri  (Chedi),  234 ; 

Kaliyuga,  13, 162,  252,  254, 258  ; 

Kanigka,  232, 256 ; 

Kollam,  257, 258 ; 

Kollam  Andu,  257 ; 

Krta,  254 ; 

Kuga^a,  231, 232 ; 
inscription  of,  230 ; 
method  of  date-recording,  232 ; 
Lakgmapa  Sena,  258 ; 

Laukika  kala,  258 ; 

Maccabaean,  179 ; 

Magi,  258 ; 

MahSvIra  N  irvSija,  258 ; 

Mftlavagafla,  254 ; 

Nabonassar,  162, 177, 178, 253  ; 

Newar,  162, 258 ; 

Old  6aka,  230, 232-234, 236, 256,  256 ; 
Olympiads, -178 ; 

Ptydava  kala,  252 ; 

Parafiurdma,  257 ; 

Parganati  Abda,  257 ; 

Parthian,  178,256; 

Philippi,  162  ; 

RSja  6*ka,  268 ; 

&aka,  2, 4, 6,  13,  162,  178,  214,  233,  234, 
236, 255-258 ;  earliest  records  of,  233 ; 
Saptanji,  100, 252, 258 ; 

Seleucidean,  161,  176, 178,  179,  229,  230, 
231,255,256; 

Vallabhi,  258 ; 

Vikrama,  13,  234, 247, 254, 255. 257,  258; 
VilSyati,  244, 257, 258  ; 

Yudhifthira,  252, 258 

Rratoslhepee,  178  ;  on  diameter  of  the  earth, 
203 

Euclid,  202, 203 
Eucratidas,  229 

Euctemon,  length  of  season,  175, 261 
Eudoxus -of  Cnidus, 201, 20B ;  on  geometry,  203 
Euphrates,  river,  157 
Euthydemids;  213 
Evection,204 

Exact  Sciences  in  Antiquity,  3, 197, 198, 201 

Fabricious,  235 
Fatehjang  (inscription),  229 
Festivals,  Religious- 

Alphabetical  list  of,  111-115 
Christian,  126 ; 
general  rules  for,  101 ; 


0.  B.— 48 


276 

Festivals,  Religious — contd. 

Lunar — general  rules  for,  1Q2-1Q& ; 

dates  of,  119-124 
Moslem,  125; 

Solar— general  rules  for,  lui ; 
dates  of,  117-118 ; 

South  Indian— general  rules  for  106; 
Fotheringham,  Dr.  J.  K.,  165 

Galilio,  159 

GftndMra,  225, 226, 229,  230 ;  latitude  of  225 
Ganesa  caturthi,  108 
Ganges,  river,  157 
Gangooly.  P.  L.,  238 
Garga,  226 ;  receding  of  solstices,  226 
Qarga  Samhita,  226 
Gargasrota,  river,  226 
Gaupa  (m&na),  247, 248 
Geminus,  197 
■General  Astronomy,  158 
Geocentric  theory,  204, 239 
George  Washington,  birthday  of,  161 
Geah  (division  of  time),  160 
Ghatika,  160 
Ghirshman,  232 
Ginzel,  F.  K.  162, 193 

Gnomon,  159, 174, 188, 189,  202,  219, 223, 268  ; 

measurement  in  Aitareya  Brahmapa,  266 
Gondophernes,  178, 230 
Gorpiaios,  Greek  month,  231 
Great  Bear  (Saptarji),  190 
Greek  Olympiads,  178 
Greenwich  time  (U,  T.),  14 
Gregory  XIII,  Pope,  2, 10, 11, 170, 171 
Gunda  (inscription),  234 
Guptas,  254, 255,  257 


Hajj,  18o 

Hammurabi,  Babylonian  king,  175 
Harappa,  21 2 
Harsa  Vardhana,  254 
Hashim,  Amir  Ali,  180 
Haug,  Dr.  Martin,  216 
Heliacal  rising,  164, 191 
Heliocentric  theory,  203 
Herzfeld,  232, 255 . 

Hesiod,  201 

Hidda  (inscription),  230 
Hipparchos  of  Nicaea,  165,  166,  177,  178,  192, 
197,  200,  201,  203,  205,  206,  226,  235, 
237,240; 

catalogue  of  stars,  203  ; 
discovery  of  precession,  205, 267  ; 
first  point  of  Aries,  200, 205, 206 ; 
geometry  &  spherical  trigonometry,  203, 
204 

Hippocrates  of  Chios,  202 
History  of  J&ience,  206 
Hoang  Ho,  river,  157 
Holidays,  5,  6 ;  list  of,  117-T* 

Ajmer,  145  ; 

Assam,  128 ; 

Bhopal,  146 ; 

Bihar,  129 ; 

Bilaspur,  147 ; 


INDEX 

Holidays,  list  of — contd. 

Bombay,  130 ;  . 

Christian  festivals,  126  ; ' 

Coorg,  148 ; 

Delhi,  149 ; 

East  Punjab,  134 ; 

Fixed  holidays  &  solar  festivals,  117, 118 ; 
Govt,  of  India,  127 ; 

Himachal  Pradesh,  150 ; 

Hyderabad,  137 ; 

Jammu  &  Kashmir,  138 ; 

Kutch,  151 ; 

Lunar  festivals,  119-124 ; 

Madhya  Bharat,  139 ; 

Madhya  Pradesh,  131 ; 

Madras,  132 ; 

Manipur,  152 ; 

Moslem  festivals,  125 ; 

,  Mysore,  140 ; 

Orissa,  133  ; 

Patiala  &  East  Panjab  States  Union,  141 ; 
Rajasthan,  142 ; 

Saurashtra,  143  ; 

Travancore-Cochin,  144 ; 

Tripura,  153 ; 

Uttar  Pradesh,  135  ; 

Vindhya  Pradesh,  154 ; 

West  Bengal,  136 
Hora,  236, 266 
Horoscope,  196, 205, 256 
Horoscopic  astrology,  194, 196, 204,  256 
Hour  circle,  191 

Hsiu,  Chinese  lunar  mansion,  182,  183,  210, 
211,224; 

names  with  component  stars,  210, 211 ; 
starting  of,  183 
Huviska,  231 
Hypatia,  204 


Ibn  Yunus,  206 
Idavatsara,  225 
Ides,  168 
Idvatsara,  225 
Iliad,  201 

Indian  Calendar,  246 

Indian  Ephemeris,  An,  101 

Indian  Ephemeris  and  Nautical  Almanac, 

5, 8, 12, 14, 17 

Indra,  Indian  god,  199,  215,  216 
Indus,  river,  157 

Intercalary  month  '  ( =  malamasa),  175,  176, 
245, 246 ; 

Babylonian  calendar,  176 ; 
calculation  of,  246,  249  ; 
definition  of  247 ;, 
eight-year  cycle,  202 ; 

Islamic  calendar,  180. ; 

Jewish  calendar,  179 ; 

list  of  acc.  to  modern  calculations,  250 ; 

list  of  according  to  8.  8.,  250 ; 

19-year  cycle,  176, 200,  202, 229, 245, 246 ; 
Paitamaha  Biddhanta,  223 ; 

9g- V  eda,  216, 218 ; , 

Romaka  Biddhanta,  237 ; 

Siddh&nta  Jyotipa,  246, 248;; 

Vedanga  Jyo£i$a;  223,  224,225,  246 


Introduction  to  the  History  of  Science ,  159 
Isis,  Egyptian  god,  164, 165 


Jacobi,  215 
Jaikadeva,  254 
Jai  Bingh  of  Amber,  10 
jamotika,  &aka  king,  233  - 
Jaum&ftamI,  19 
Jatakas,  239 
Jayanti,  names  of,  107 
Jayaswall,  255 
Jehonika,  230 

Jelaluddin,  Melik  Shah,  166 
Johann  Werner,  206 
Jones,  Sir  Harold  Spencer,  6, 12, 158 
Jovian  cycle,  257 

Jovian  (Barhaspatya)  years,  270 ; 

names  of,  270 
Julian  days.  161, 162 
Julian  days  of  important  events,  162, 163 
Julian  period,  162 

Julius  Caesar,  2, 10, 159, 165, 168, 241 
Junction  stars,  of  nakpatra,  184,  210, 211,  220  ; 
262-265; 

dhruvaka  of,  264,  265  ; 
latitude  of  (1950),  220,  264,  265  ; 

„  (1956),  184,  210,  211 ; 

long,  of  (1950),  220,  264,  265  ; 

.,  (1956),  184,  210,  211 ; 

magnitude  of,  210,  211, 264, 265 
Jupiter,  planet,  194, 195,  203,  239  ; 

■  sidereal  period  of,  270 
Jya  (chord),  204 
Jyotiia  Karaiiija,  223 


Kabishah,  180 

Kadamba,  pole  of  the  ecliptic,  192 
Kala.  or  liptika,  160 
Kalaloka  PrakaSa,  223. 

Kalasang  (inscription),  229 

KslastamI,  108 

Kaldarra  (inscription),  229 
Kalends,  168 

Kalhapa,  Historian  of  Kashmir,  252 
Kali,  162  ;  long,  of  planets  at  Kali  beginning 
253 

Kalidasa,  7, 261 

Kalpa,  162, 175, 214,  240,  268,  269 

Kalpadi,  names  of,  107 

Kandahar,  229 

Kani?ka,  230, 231,  236, 256 

Kanijka  1, 231 

Kadijka  II,  232 

Kanaka  111,231,232 

Kanijka  Casket  (inscription),  230 

Kaniza  Dheri  (inscription) ,231 

K&pva,  213, 228 

Kapigthala  Ka(ha  Samhita,  218 
Kapsa.  230 
Karapa,  163 

Karapas,  definition,  names  and  calculation  of, 
110  ;  lords  of,  110  ' 

Ka(haka,  218 

Kaurpa  (name  of  a  sign),  193 


INDEX 


277 


Kiatflya,  views  pn  astrology,  23d 
peith,  Dr.  Berriedale,  218 
Kendra,  236. 266 
Kepler,  2, 206, 242 
Ketu  (node),  186 
Khalatse  (inscription),  229 
Khaifiakhiidyaka  of  Brahmagupta,  162,  240, 
253 

Kharogthi  (inscription),  229, 230, 231,  233 
Khotani  6aka  (language),  231 
Kidinnu,  200 

Konow,  Dr.  Sten,  229, 231, 255 
Kr&nti  (declination),  262 
KrttikSs,  182, 219,  252 
Ksaya  month,  247, 248  250 
Kugler,  176, 196, 225 
Kumbha  mela,  6 
Kumbha  yoga,  108 
Kurrani  (inscription),  230 
Kurukjetra,  latitude  of,  225 
Kus&pas,  213, 230-234, 236, 252, 256 

Lagadha,  214,  222 

Laghumanasa  of  Mufij&la,  162,  267 

Lagna  (orient  ecliptic  point),  237,  268 

Lagrange,  167 

Lalla,  on  precession  267 

Lambaka  (co-latitude),  239 

Lanka,  Greenwich  of  ancient  India,  239,  253 

Laplace,  107 

Latitude,  celestial,  192,  203,  204,  210,  211,  264 
265; 

polar,  192, 263, 264,266 

Leap  year,  6, 13, 15  ;  of  Islamic  calendar,  180  ; 

of  Reformed  Calendar  of  India,  186 
Leonardo  of  PiBa,  160 
Leeuw,  Mrs.  Van  Lohuizen,  232, 255, 256 
libra,  first  point  of,  192, 199, 239, 262, 268 
Iiptik&,  160, 236,  263,  266 
Lockyer,  Sir  Norman,  190 
Lokavibhdga  of  Siihhasuri,  233 
Longitude,  celestial,  7, 192,  203,  204,  210,  211 
253, 264,  265 ; 
polar,  192, 263, 264, 265 
Longitudes  of  planets  at  Kali-beginning,  253 
Lttders,  228, 232 
Lunar  eclipse,  185 
Lunar  mansions,  182 ; 
of  Rg  Veda,  217 ; 
stars  of,  210,  211 
Lunar  year,  beginning  of,  220, 221 
Lunation,  duration  of,  158, 174, 175, 246  ; 
length  of,  164, 248 

Madhyihna,  101, 108 

Mahabharata,  170, 183, 185, 219,  221,  227,  228, 
239,252; 

month  reckoning  in,  185  ; 
jtiipe  of  compilatio»*226, 252 
MahidvidasI,  defined,  107 
Mahfiyuga,  160, 162, 217, 254 
Maira  (inscription),  229 
Maitrayapl  Saihhita,  218 
Malamis«.  246,  (see  also  intercalary  month), 
Mamlne  pherl  (inscription),  231 


Mapikiflla  (inscription),  230 
M&psehrS  (inscription),  229 
Manvadi,  names  of,  107 

Man zil,  Arabian  lunar  mansion,  182,  183, 

210,211; 

names  with  component  stars,  210, 211 ; 
starting  of,  183 
M&rguz  (inscription),  229 
Mars,  planet,  194, 195, 203, 239  ; 

retrograde  motion  of,  194 
MSsakj-t,  174 ; 

Matins,  159 

Maues,  230, 233 

Mauryas,  228 

Max  M tiller,  183,  214, 215 

Maya,  236,  238 

Mean  solar  day,  157, 158 

Mean  solar  time,  158 

Meghaduta  of  K&lidAsa,  261 

Melik  Shah  the  Seljuk,  159 

Menander,  213, 229, 235 

Menelaos  (Greek  astronomer),  204  ; 

Spherical  trigonometry,  204 
Mercedonius,  168 
Mercury,  planet,  194, 195, 203,  239 
Meridian  passage,  57 
Mes&di,  239 

Megfidi,  sidereal,  16, 17, 40 
Meton  of  Athens,  176, 202  ; 

nineteen-year  cycle,  202 
Metonic  cycle,  162, 176 
Milinda  Panho  (philosophical  treatise),  229 
Mithra  (Persian  god),  167, 170 
Mithradatee  1, 213, 255 
Mithradates  II,  213, 255 
Mitra,  Indian  god,  215 
Moga,  6aka  king,  230 
Mohammed  Ajmal  Khan,  180 
Mohammed,  Prophet,  159, 179, 180 
Mohenjodaro,  212 
Moise  of  Khorene,  232 
Month,  anomalistic,  197 ; 

beginning  in  Babylonian  calendar,  185  ; 
definition  of,  157, 158, 185  ; 
dracoftitic,  186, 197  ; 
intercalary  (see  intercalary  month) ; 
Lunar,  220, 221, 225,  245,  246  ; 

commencement  of  as  recommended 
by  the  Committee,  7  ; 
names  of  Indian,  Chaldean  and 
Jewish,  177 ;  Macedonian,  177, 229  ; 
length  of  Islamic,  180 ; 
interpretation  of  month  names,  221 ; 
length  acc.  to  8.  8.,  246 
reckoning  in  Mah&bh&rata,  185  ; 
relation  between  draconitic  and  synodic, 
186; 

sidereal,  223  ; 

Solar,  causes  of  variation  in  length,  243  ; 
commencement  of,  7 ; 
definition  of,  242  ; 

different  conventions  in  beginning 
of,  244 ; 

duration  of,  243 ; 

Egyptian,  164 ; 

first  month  of  the  year,  5, 6 ; 


Month,  Solar—  cotitd. 

Iranian  names,  166 ; 
length  of,  211, 242-246, 251 ; 
length  recommended  by  the 

Committee  2,  5, 6, 13, 15 ; 
npmes  in  French  Revolution 
calendar,  167 ; 
names  in  Yajur-Veda,  218  ; 
names  of,  Indian  5,  6,  7, 14, 15  ; 
names,  Persian  166, 167  ; 
number  of  days  in  Vedfthga  Jyotiga, 
225  ; 

variation  in  length,  1 
Synodic  period,  197, 223 
Moon,  crescent  of,  182  ; 

deviation  of  path  from  the  ecliptic,  192, 
208; 

inclination  of  path  to  the  ecliptic,  201 ; 

limiting  values  of  true  motion,  197  ; 

mean  daily  motion,  197  ; 

motion  of,  182  ; 

movement  of,  31, 181, 182  ; 

rate  of  motion  over  the  sun,  184  ; 

sidereal  period  of,  182  ; 

Bynodic  period  of.  182 
Mount  Banj  (inscription),  229 
Mncai  (inscription),  229 
Muhhrta,  100, 108, 160  ;  lords  of,  109 
Mukhya  m&na,  247, 249 
■  Mul  Apin,  Babylonian  astrological  text,  198 
Munisvara,  commentator,  267 
Munj&la  Bhata,  11, 259 
on  precession,  267-269 
Mural  quadrant,  203 

Nabu  Nazir,  177 
Naburiannu,  200 
Nadir,  157 
N&gabhata,  257 
Nahapfina,  233 

N akpatra,  average  length  of,  224  ; 
beginning  of,  14, 229  ; 
calculation  of  (acc.  to  the  recommenda¬ 
tions  of  the  Committee),  5,  7, 16, 17  - 
component  stars  of,  210,  211 ; 
def.  of  in  earliest  times,  183,  218, 227  ; 
def.  of  in  Ved&hga  Jyoti$a,  183,  223-225 ; 
designation  of,  182, 183  ; 
division  of,  183, 184,  219  ; 
junction-stars  of,  184,  210,  211,  220, 
264,265; 
lords  of,  109 ;' 

meaning  of  Indian,  182, 210,  211 , 
names  of-general  210, 211, 2©  ; 

„  „  Tamil,  109  ; 

j>  ,!  -Yajur  Vedic  with  presiding 

deities,  220 ; 
number  of,  182 ; 

Rg-Vedic,  183 ; 

shifting  of  the  beginning  of,  18, 19  ; 
starting  of  182, 183 
Nandsa  Yupa  inscription,  254 
Napolean  Bonaparti,  168 
Narseh,  Sassanid  king,  232 
N&satya,  215 
J^asik,  228 


278 


INDTSY 


National  Obeensatary,  5,8, 12, 14 
Nautical  Almanac,  8, 165 
Nepthys,  164 

Neugebauer,  O.,  3, 160, 175, 185, 189, 192, 197, 
198,199,201,203,204 
New  Testament,  166 
Newton,  Isaac,  2, 193, 206, 240, 259  ; 

precession  of  the  equinoxes,  207 
Night,  definition  of,  157 
Nile  flood,  158, 164, 165, 174, 189 
Nineteen -year  cycle,  176, 200 
Nirayapa,  259, 260, 262, 268 
Nirtiaya  Sindhu,  101 
Nirukta,  214 

Nirvipa,  Buddha,  235, 257 

Nisan,  161, 170, 175, 178, 179, 229 

Nisttha,  106 

Nodes,  185, 186, 187, 269 

Nona,  159 

Nones,  168 

Numa  Pompilius,  168 

Nut,  164 

Nutation,  209 

Nychthemeron,  157, 159 

•Obliquity,  of  the  ecliptic,  158, 191,  207, 208, 225 
amount  of,  191 ; 
definition  of,  191 ; 

Oetaeteris,  176 
Octavious  Caesar,  168  ; 

Odyssey,  201 

Olympiads,  178 

Omar  Khayyam,  166, 172,  240 

Omina,  195,  235 

Orbit,  of  the  earth,  207 

Orion,  189 

Orion,  190, 195 

Osiris,  Egyptian  god,  164 


Paikuli  (inscription),  232 
Paitdmaha  Siddhanta,  223 
Fiji  (inscription),  229 
Pakea,  227-231 ; 

kpppa  or  vahula,  15, 221,  228, 233, 247 ; 
sukla,  15, 221, 228, 247  ;  . 

Pala,  160 
Palas,  257 
Fallavas,  256 
Fanc&hgas,  list  of,  21, 22 
Paitca  Siddhjntika  of  V arjhamihira,  158,  162, 
197,223,  226,236,  237,  238 
Panemos,  Greek  month,  230 
Fapini,  214 

Panjtar  (inscription),  229 
Fannekoek,  Or.  Anton,  174,  176, 178, 185, 194, 
196,197 

ParavidUthS,  101, 108  -/wales  for;  109 
Parivatsara,  225 
Passover  fast,  170 
Pltaliputra,  10, 213, 234, 252 
Pauliia  Siddhanta,  204 
.  Paulus  of  Alexandria,  204. 237 
•Perihelion,  242  ;  movement  of,  243 
PeshSwar  Museum  (inscription),  229, 230 
Phllhellenj,  213 


Phraates  1, 213 
Pictorial  Astronomy,  194, 195 
Filial ,  8.  K.,  .101, 289 
Pihgala,  214 

Planet,  169  j  order  of  distance,  208  ; 

references  in  Bg-Veda,  212  ; 

Planetarium,  203 

Pianetory  Astrology,  169, 194 — 196 
Plato,  202, 203, 228, 229  ;  geometry,  202 
Pleiades,  182, 190, 195, 199, 219 
Polar  axis,  206 

Polaris  (<  Ursac  Minor  is),  190, 207, 239 
Pole,  celestial,  191, 192,  207  ; 
definition  of,  191 ; 
motion  of,  207 ; 
observation  of,  190, 191 ; 
precessloual  path  of,  207 
Pope,  Gregory  XllI,  159, 172 
Pradojsvrata,  108 
Prahara,  100 
Prajipati,  217 

Prfipa  (division  of  time),  160 
Prfitab,  108 

Precession  of  the  equinoxes,  2,  7,  8,  193,  200, 
204-206, 237, 238, 240, 253, 259, 267  ; 
Al-Batt&ni’a  rate  of,  206  ; 
among  Hindus,  226 ; 
among  Indian  astronomers,  267  ; 
amplitude  of  precessional  oscillation 
according  to  S.  S.,  268  ; 
Bhaskaracarya’s  rate  of,  269  ; 
consequences  of,  205, 206  ; 
discovery  of,  204,  205  ; 
effect  in  Indian  calendar,  7, 11, 18  ; 
effect  in  Indian  Siddhantas,  226  ; 
explanation  by  Newton,  207,  208  ; 
Hipparcho9's  rate  of,  205  ; 
motion  of  (precessional),  206,  268  ; 
Muhjftla  Bhata'-s  rate  of,  268  ; 
numerical  value  of,  209  ; 
physical  explanation  of,  207,  206  ; 
Pfthudaka  Svami’s  rate  of,  268  *, 
Ptolemy’s  rate  of,  205  206  ; 
rate  of  annual,  209  ; 
rate  of  lunar,  208,  209  ; 
rate  of  solar,  206,  2C6  ; 

Stirya  Siddhanta’s  rate  of,  268 
Pfthudaka  Sv&ml,  259, 268,  269 
Proclos,  on  precession,  206 
Ptolemy,  Claudius,  161, 165, 166, 177, 178, 185, 
192,  200,  201,  203— 206, 214,  228,  238,  240, 
263, 266 ; 
on  astrology,  205 ; 

„  evection,  204 ; 

„  rate  of  precession,  205  ; 

„  theory  of  planetary  motion,  204  ; 
Ptolemies,  213 
Ptolemy,  Euergetes,  165  ; 

Pulakesin  1, 233 
Pulakesin  II,  253 
Pulastya,  236 
Puripas,  101, 252 

Purpimanta,  month,  157,  227,  230,  231,  233, 
247, 256 
Puru&pur,  232 
Pfirvihna,  101, 108 
Purvavi(Jdh&,  101,108, rules  for,  109 


PuskaUvati,  230 
Pythagorean  uumber/198;(ftg4 


Quartz  clock,  12, 159 
Questionnaire,  regarding  calendar,  22  : 
replies  to,  23-31 

Ri,  Egyptian  sun-god,  164 
Rahu,  ascending  node,  136 
Bamayaifa,  261 
Rimp&rva  (inscription),  227 
Rahganitha,  23S 
Rapson,  255 

Refraction,  225, 226  ;  effect  of,  225 
Retrograde  motion,  169, 194, 195 
Bg-Samhiti,  217, 218 

Big-  Vedas,  183,  212  ,  214,  216,  217,  218,  221, 

222; 

calendaric  references  in,  216-218  ; 
description  of,  215 ; 

Bibhus,  216 

Bight  ascension,  192,  204 

Riza  Shah  Pahlavi ;  167 

Bomaka,  236, 239 

Borne,  Era  of  foundation  of,  178 

notation  of  the  earth,  157, '158 

Budrad&man,  233 

Kudra  Simha,  6aka  satrap,  231,  236 


Sachs,  A.,  199, 201 
Saha,  Prof.  M  N.,  173,  232,  252,  256 
Sahdaur  A  (inscription),  229 
Sahdaur  B  (inscription),  229 
Sahni,  Dayaram,  232 
6akas,  213,  230,  233, 236 
Sakadvipl  Brahmapas,  214,  236,  256 
6a  ka  sain  vat,  255 
6akas thin,  213, 233 
6akendra  kala,  255 
6aliv5hana  6aka,  255 
Samarkand,  10 
Sama  Veda,  214,  218 
Samhitas,  214, 218 
Sa&kr&nti,  2,  7,  239, 244 
Mahivieuva,  215  ; 

Makara,  215 

rules  of,  244, 247, 259  ; 

Uttarayapa,  215 ; 

Sampat  calana,  269 
Samudragupta,  255 
Samvatsara,  255,  270' 

Sahgava,  108 

6anku  (gnomon),  188 

6ara  (celestial  latitude),  262 

Sargon  I,  215 

Saros,  184, 185, 202, 217 

Barton,  George,  159, 188, 203, 204, 206 

6astry,  Mm.  Bapudev,  259 

658 try,  Prof.  Mm.  Bidhusekhar,  235 

6itakarpi,  228,  233 

6atananda,  160 

featapatha  Brahmana,  18, 189, 219 
6s,tayahanas,  212, 213, 227-231, 233, 234, "255 
■•Saturn,  planet,  )94,  l95, 203,  239 


Sauna  day,  197 
SAWana,  2, 157, 223, 924 
.fiyfchna,  108 

Siyana,  1, 11, 12, 13, 217, 259 
Bcaliger,  Joseph,  9, 11, 161 
Scaligeif  J*liu«,’162 
Schmidt,  Dr.  Olaf,  163 
Sctolider,  215 
Sdtentific  American,  190 
Scorpion,  193, 195, 198 
Scythian  Period  of  Indian  Bietory,  232",  265 
Seasons,  157, 158, 174, 189, 216, 217,227,230, 239 
causes  of,  259  ; 

determination  by  gnomon,  189 
error  in  counting,  200 ; 
length  of,  174, 175, 261 ; 
moving  back  of,  18  ; 
names  of  Indian,  217, 241, 260  ; 
position  of,  1,  6,  260 ; 

relation  of  months  with  seasons  in  Vedic 
age,  216,218 ; 

■in  Pg-Veda,  216, 217 
Seb,  Egyptian  god  164 
Seleucus,  178, 213, 228 
Senas,  Hindu  raling  dynasty,  257 
Seneca,  225 

Sengupta,  P.  C.,  183,  215,  221,  227,  238,  253, 

-  206 

Set,  Egyptian  god,  164 
Sewell,  E.  S-,  246 
Sexta,  159 

Shahpur  I  (Sassanid  king),  232 
Shama  Sastry,  Dr.  B-,  223,  224 
Shin  Kot  (inscription),  229 
Siddhfinta  Jyotiga,  161, 221 
Siddh&ntas,  1,  2,  3,  163,  234,  236,237,  238, 
245; 

irya,  238,  242, 251 ; 

Brahma,  238,  242, 251 ; 
definition  of,  234 ; 

PaitSmaha,  236-238 ; 

Paulisa,  236-238 ; 

Bomaka,  236, 237, 240  ; 

Surya,  236,  238-244 ; 

VSsigtha,  236,  237 
Siddhanta  Sekhara  of  6rlpati,  162 
SiddhSnta  Airomani  of  BhaskarficSrya,  238, 
269 

Sidereal  time,  158 

Signs,  of  the  zodiac,  192,  193,  194,  196,  206, 
223,224,237,239,240 
£ikga,  214 

Sircar,  D.  C.,  228,  231,  233,  234 

Sirius,  164 
fevaratri,  108 
Sky  and  Telescope,  177 
Solar  day,  mean,  157, 158  ; 
division  of,  159  ; 

Solar  cycle,  162  ; 

Solar  time,  mean,  158  ; 

Solstices,  188, 189, 296-;  . 

determination  by  Vediwfiindus,  266  ; 
observation  in  Aitareya  BrShmapa,  266 
summer,  188, 189, 192, 226, 266 ; 
winter,  13,  189,  192,  223,  224,  226,  241, 
:  '259; 

Solstitial  colure,  226 


IKDEX 


Somikara,  222 
Sosigenes,  168 
Sotbie  cycle,  105 
grlpati,  11, 246 

6rlgepa,  237  ;  on  precassioh,  267 
Stone-heoge,  189, 190 
Sudi,  247, 248 
6uddfla,  7, 247 
,8ui  Vihar  (inscription),  230 
Stilva-Sutrat,  190, 214 
8nn;  distance  from  the  earth,  206  ; 
entry  into  nakgatras,  15, 40 ; 
mass  of,  208 ; 
mean  daily  motion,  197  ; 
semi-diameter  of,  225 
Sun-dial,  159 
Sun-rise,  15 ; 

timings  of  certain  important  places,  116 
Sun-set.  15 

timings  of  certain  important  places,  116 ; 
Sunga,  213,22g,235 
Surya  Prajnapti,  223 

Surya  Siddhanta,  1, 2, 158, 189,  192,  203,  214, 
236-240,  242-46,  250,  251,  253,  262-264, 
267, 268,  270 ; 
calendar  in,  239, 240 ; 
description  of,  238, 244  ; 

.  error  in  length  of  year,  2, 241 ; 
length  of  the  year,  2, 240,  241 ; 
star  positions  of,  264, 265  ; 
theory  of  trepidation,  268 
Sutras,  214,  216,  221 ; 

$rauta,  Gfhya,  Dharma,  Sulva,  214 
Synodic  period,  158, 175, 182  ; 

revolution  of  planets  acc.  to  P.  S.,  197 
Syntaxis  or  Almagest,  192,  201,  203,  204 


Taittirlya  Brahmaria,  182 ; 

Taittirlya  Sarhhita,  218,  220,  221,  260 

Takht-i-Bahi  (inscription),  229 

Tantra,  163 

Tarn,  229,  255 

Taxila,  213,  228,  230,  256 

Taxila  copper  plate  (inscription),  229 

Taxila  silver  scroll  (inscription),  229 

Taxila  silver  vase  (inscription),  229 

Telephos  of  KapsS,  230 

Tertia,  159 ' 

Tetrabiblos,  201, 204,  205 
Thabit-ibn-Qurra,  206 
Thales  of  Miletus,  202 

prediction  of  solar  eclipse,  202  ; 
Theaitetus  of  Athens,  202  ; 

Theon  of  Alexandria,  204,  206,  240  ; 

on  trepidation,  206,  240 
Thibaut,  Dr,  G.,  197, 223, 225, 237 
Thirteen-mouth  calendar,  171 
Thoth,  Egyptian  god,  164 
Tigris,  river,  157 
Tilak,  B.  G.,  11, 189, 215, 216 
Time,  natural  divisions  of,  157-160 
Timocharis,  205 
Tiridates,  178 
Tigya,  217,  227 


279 

Tithi,  183,218, 227, 228, 230, 234, 230,  248 ; 
average  dti ration  of ,221 , ' 222, 22f ,*248 ; 
comparison  of  Siddhantic  andinodern,  3 
defined,  3, 221 ; 

definition  in  Aitareya  Br&hmapa,  221  j 
„  „  Siddhtotas,  221 ; 

„  „  Vedinga  Jyotiga,  224, 225 ; 

duration  of  Vedic  tithi,  221 ; 
error  in  the  old  method,  3, 14 ; 
lords  of,  109 ; 
measurement  of,  248 ; 
names  of,  222 ; 
numbers  of,  15, 221, 222 
Tithitatvam ,  101 

Trepidation,  theory  of,  204, 206,  207, 238,  240, 
259,268,209 
Tulfidi,  239 
Tycho  Brahe,  206 


Ullulu,  176 
Ulugh  Begh,  10 
Umbra  Extensa,  204 
Umbra  Versa,  204 
Und  (inscription),  231 
Upanigads,  214,  215 
Uranometry,  205 
Usavadata,  6aka  prince,  233 
Utkalakalikci,  101 
Utkramajya,  204 

Uttarayapa.  189,  219,  224,  226,  239,  260 


Vadi,  247,  248 
Vaidya,  Prof.  B.V.,  263 
Vaidyariatha  Diksitiyam,  101 
Vajasaneyi  Samhita,  218 
Vajheska,  231 
Van  der  Waerden,  160 

Varfthamihira,  2,  7, 192, 193, 197,  223,  226,  236, 
237, 238, 240, 252, 255, 267 
Varupa,  Indian  god,  215, 216 
Vasigtha,  Indian  sage,  236 
Vasiqtha  Siddhanta ,  236, 237, 267 
Vasudeva  1, 231, 232 
V asudeva  II,  231, 232 
Vedas,  description  and  literature,  214  ; 

age  of  its  literature,  214,  215 
Ved&hgas,  214,  215 

Vedanga  Jyotiga,  161, 217,  224,  226,  237,  340, 
241,245,246; 
description  of,  221-225 
V ehsadjan,  232 
Ventris,  202 

Venus,  planet,  194, 195, 198,  203,  239  ; 
heliacal  rising  and  setting  of,  6, 15 
(  see  also  Calendar  for  five  years). 

Vernal  equinox,  2, 158,  226,  239,  241, 267 
Vernal  point,  1, 158,  205  ; 

movement  of,  193, 194, 205, 267 
Vespers,  159 

Vidyasagar,  Pandit  Ishwar  Chandra,  260 
Vighati,  160 
VikramSditya,  254, 255 
Vikgepa,  192,262-265,267 
Virapurugadatta,  228 


250" 

Vi$pu  jCapdra,  237  ;  on  precession,  267 

Viguvan,  216,219, 221, 266 

Visuvinga,  262 

Vogt,  203 

Vfddha  Garga,  252 

VySkarapa,  214 


Wardak  (inscriptioii),  230 

Water-clock,  157, 159 

Webster,  A.  G.,207, 208 

Week,  169, 170, 203, 223, 234, 251, 252  ; 

origin  and  invention  of,  160, 170 
Winternitz,  214, 215, 218 
World  Calendar  Association,  10, 12, 171 
Worlds’  day,  172, 173 


Yajnavalkya  VSjasaneya,  218. 
Yajur  Veda,  182, 183,  214, 218-222  ; 
Black, 218 ; 

fsukla,  218 

YSjurveda  SamhitJ,  218 
YSjug  Jyotija,  222 
Yfima,  division  of  day,  160 
Yamakoti,  239 
YamArdha,  108 
YSska,  214 
Yavanapuri,  237 
Yavanas,  213, 256 


INDEX 

Year,  216 ;  beginning  of,  1,  4,  6, 13, 175 ; 
beginning  of  in  BrAhmapas,  241,  245  ; 
beginning  of  luofer,  221 ; 

”  “  in  PaitAmaha,  223  ; 

’’  ”  in  S.  8.,  239 

”  "  religious  calendar,  251 ; 

”  *’  Siddhfintic,  11, 241,  245  ; 

”  ”  Solar,  2, 241 ; 

”  *'  VedAnga  Jyotifa,  241,  245  ; 

”  ”  Vedic  Aryan,  216,  218  ; 

definition  of,  157, 158  ; 
draconitic  (eclipse),  186  ; 
error  in  beginning  of,  1, 13, 15,  241 ; 
error  in  beginning  of  Indian  solar,  2  ; 
first  month  of,  4,  6, 241, 242, 251 ; 

Jovian  (BArhaspatya),  270 ; 
length  (average)  of  Babylonian,  161, 177  ; 
length  of  as-found  by  ancientastronomers, 
174,  261 ; 

”  >’  Brahmagupta,  162  ; 

”  ”  Gregorian,  12, 13  ; 

”  ”  Paitamaha,  223, 240  ; 

”  ”  Ptolemy,  240  ; 

”  ”  sidereal,  158,  205,  240, 246  ; 

”  ”  solar,  223  ; 

”  ”  Surya  Siddhanta,  2,240,  241, 2465 

”  ,  ”  tropical,  1,  2,  4, 12, 158, 174, 175, 
205,  240,  246 ; 

”  ”  Varahamihira,  240  ; 

"  ’‘Vedic  Aryan,  216; 


Year— eonid. 

starting  day  of  the  solar,  241 
Yoga,  names  and  lords  of,  110 ; 
calculation  of,  110 

YogatArA  (junction  star),  183, 184, 210, 211 
Yuga,  217 ; 

of  Komaka  Siddh&nta  237 
of  Vedinga  Jyotiga,  223,  224 ; 

YngAdi,  107 

Zarathustra,  16? 

Zeda  (inscription),  230, 231 
Ziggurat,  196 
Zinner,  Dr.  Ernest,  164, 196 
Zodiac,  definition  of,  192, 193,  202  ; 
first  point  of,  14  ; 
lunar,  182, 183,  223, 226  ; 

Arabian,  182, 183 ; 

Chinese,  182, 183 ; 

Indian  ( see  nakpatra) 
place  of  origin,  183  ; 

Rg  Vedic,  217  ; 
position  through  ageB,  200  ; 
signs  of  the,  193  ; 
starting  point  of,  193  ; 
zero  point  of  the  Hindu,  262,  266,  267, 
269  ; 

Zodiacal  signs,  different  nameB  of,  193  (see  alto- 
signs  of  the  zodiac). 


